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PRINCIPLES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR 



EXERCISES IN RHETORIC AND ENGLISH COM- 
POSITION. For High Schools and Academies. 
By Prof. G. R. Carpenter. 

EXERCISES IN RHETORIC AND ENGLISH COM- 
POSITION. Advanced Course, By PROF. G. R. 
Carpenter. 

STUDIES IN STRUCTURE AND STYLE. By W. T. 
Brewster. With an Introduction by Prof. 
G. R. Carpenter. 



PRINCIPLES 



OF 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR 



FOR THE USE OF SCHOOLS 



, BY 

G. R. CARPENTER 

PROFESSOR OF RHETORIC AND ENGLISH COMPOSITION 
IN COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY 




THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 

LONDON : MACMILLAN & CO.. Ltd. 



All 7'ights reserved 



>3Fr£S DECEIVED 






Copyright, 1898 
By the MACMILLAN COMPANY 



NorixrooK ^ress 

J. S. Gushing & Co. — Berwick & Smith 
Norwood Mass. U.S.A. 



'^^O 



PREFACE 

This volume is intended for use in high-schools by 
pupils who have already passed through the elemen- 
tary stages of language study. In preparing it I have 
tried to include only the essential facts and principles 
of Modern English inflection and syntax. I have rarely 
touched on the older forms of the language, though 
I have endeavored to present the theory or system of 
the modern language in accordance with the results 
of philological research, and in such a way that the 
pupil will have nothing to ?/;dearn if, at some later 
time, he begins the interesting study of historical 
English grammar. I have included in the Appendix 
a few pages on derivation and composition (prefixes 
and suffixes) and on prosody. These topics do not 
necessarily belong to the elementary study of gram- 
mar, — or, indeed, in the case of prosody, to the study 
of grammar at any stage, — but many teachers may 
wish such information for their classes, and, by force 
of tradition, expect to find it in this place. The 
Appendix on Phonology is by Mr. E. H. Babbitt, of 
Columbia University, the secretary of the American 
Dialect Society. 



vi Preface 

I recommend teachers to pass rapidly over Chap- 
ters I and II, returning to them at a later time for 
more detailed study. The pupil's real task begins 
with Chapter III. I beg leave also to add a word 
of advice with regard to the teaching of grammar. 
There are four results — it seems to me -^^ that a 
young student should gain from his work. He must 
know, first, the logical method by which we classify 
words ; second, the simple English systems of inflec- 
tion; third, the main principles of English syntax. 
Fourth, he must understand thoroughly the structure 
of the English sentence. All these things a boy or 
girl can master, under proper direction, in a year 
or two. Unfortunately, many pupils never master 
them. They learn grammar by rote, parse alm.ost by 
ear, ^'diagram" by a kind of acquired instinct, and 
never acquire a firm basis for the further study of 
their mother tongue. I earnestly advise teachers to 
make sure that their pupils are thoroughly grounded 
in the essential principles of Modern English gram- 
mar. Much of this work can be done in the elemen- 
tary school, where the study of grammar is naturally 
^'subordinate and auxiliary to the study of English 
literature," as the Committee of Fifteen has pointed 
out. But the study of grammar as a system must 
necessarily be deferred, in my opinion, until the 
high-school course. 

To several friends and colleagues who have aided 



Preface vii 

me greatly in the preparation of this volume, and in 
particular to Professor A. V. W. Jackson and Dr. 
Caskie Harrison, I return my hearty thanks. In cer- 
tain exercises I have drawn freely, as others have 
done before me, on the hoard of illustrations con- 
tained in Maetzner's famous Englische Gj^ammatik. 
The brief treatment of prefixes and suffixes in the 
Appendix is based to some extent on Mr. Sweet's 
account of the subject in his excellent Nezv English 
Grammar. 

It only remains to say that I have avoided categor- 
ical statements affirming that certain usages occur- 
ring frequently in literary and colloquial English are 
*Svrong." It seems to me exceedingly important 
that pupils should learn to study and judge the facts 
of language as they at present exist, in a candid and 
scientific fashion, tabooing only words and expres- 
sions that are actually vulgar, and recognizing the 
natural diversity of usage. It is characteristic of 
our language that we may, without fear of being 
misunderstood, use, in many instances, either of two 
different forms of expression. It is the business of 
grammar to note and classify these different forms. 
To choose between them is almost always a question 
of taste, and questions of taste belong rather to the 
^'art" of rhetoric than to the ^* science" of grammar. 

G. R. C. 



CONTENTS 

Chapter Page 

I. Grammar and its Divisions ..... i 

II. The English Language ..... 8 

III. The Parts of Speech . . . . . .18 

IV. Inflection, Derivation, and Composition . . 33 
V. Nouns : Kinds of Nouns . . . . -38 

VI. Nouns: Gender . . . . . . .45 

VII. Nouns: Number . . . ... -53 

VIII. Nouns: Case ....... 63 

IX. Pronouns 78 

X. Adjectives . . 98 

XI. Verbs: Conjugation . . . . . . 108 

XII. Verb-phrases, Auxiliary Verbs, and Verbals . . 129 ^^^ 

XIII. Adverbs 147 

XIV. Prepositions 157 

XV. Conjunctions . . . . . . .163 

XVI. Syntax 172 

XVII. Analysis of Sentences ...... 204 

ix 



Contents 



Page 



Appendix : 






I. 


Phonology ..... 


. 


. 221 


II. 


Prefixes and Suffixes . 


• 


. 229 


III. 


Metre 


• 


• 234 


IV. 


Table of Irregular Verbs 


^ 


. 241 


V. 


Suggestions for Teachers 




. 247 


Index 






. 2CI 



PRINCIPLES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

CHAPTER I 

GRAMMAR AND ITS DIVISIONS 

1. What Grammar is. — 2. Two Divisions of Grammar: Or- 
thoepy AND Orthography. — 3. Additional Divisions of 
Grammar : (i) Classification of Words ; (2) Forms of 
Words; (3) Syntax. — 4. The Purpose of Grammar. — 5. His- 
torical Grammar. 

1. What Grammar is. — Grammar is a systematic 
description of the essential principles of a language 
or a group of languages. Just as astronomy gives 
a systematic account of the nature and arrange- 
ment of the heavenly bodies, describing and class- 
ifying them, and explaining, so far as they are 
understood, the laws that govern them, so English 
Grammar gives a systematic account of the English 
language, both as it is spoken and as it is written, 
describing and classifying its various parts, and 
explaining, so far as possible, the various customs 
of speech and writing which have been adopted by 
those who speak and write English. 



2 English Grammar [chap, i 

2. Two Divisions of Grammar : Orthoepy and Orthog- 
raphy. — Grammar deals with language, and lan- 
guage may be either spoken or written. It is 
obvious, therefore, that one part of English Gram- 
mar has to do with the ways in which the language 
is spoken or pronounced, and another witja the ways 
in which the language is written or spelled. The 
first is sometimes called Orthoepy (from a Greek 
word meaning ''correct speaking"), and the second 
Orthography (from a Greek word meaning " correct 
writing"), (i) Orthoepy deals with the proper or 
customary pronunciation and accentuation of English 
words. This part of the field of Grammar is fully 
treated in the dictionaries, and need not be taken up 
in this volume.^ (2) Orthography, the branch of 
Grammar which deals with the correct or customary 
writing or spelling of words, may also be left to the 
dictionaries, which discuss it in great detail. All 
that need be said here with regard to either branch 
is to remind the student of the great- authority 
attached to usage in both spelling and pronuncia- 
tion. Correct pronunciation or correct spelling 
must always be understood in the sense of that 
pronunciation or that spelling which is most widely 
current among educated people. This explains the 
fact that there are frequently different opinions with 
regard to the correct pronunciation or the correct 

^ To one branch of Orthoepy, however, the pupil's attention should 
be particularly called, i.e.^ Phonology, which deals with the classifi- 
cation of spoken sounds. See Appendix, I. 



CHAP, i] Grammar and its Divisions 3 

spelling of certain words. Which pronunciation or 
spelling is preferable may, in some cases, be hard 
to determine, but the student may at least feel 
assured that his pronunciation or his spelling can 
never justly be called wrong when it is in accord 
with that of a large body of his educated countrymen. 

3. Additional Divisions of Grammar: (i) Classifica- 
tion of Words (Parts of Speech); (2) Forms of Words 
(Inflection) ; (3) Syntax. — Leaving to the dictiona- 
ries Orthoepy and Orthography, inasmuch as they 
deal merely with customs of utterance and spelling, 
and scarcely affect the logical system of the lan- 
guage, we now come to the divisions of Grammar 
that are of chief importance. 

(i) The first important branch of Grammar is that 
which deals with the classes into which words are 
divided in accordance with their use. As we shall 
see, English words may be logically arranged in 
different groups or classes, such as nouns, pronouns, 
adjectives, and verbs, according to the various uses 
that are made of them. Names, for example, such 
as John^ Henry ^ New Yorky fall into one group, that 
of nouns ; and words expressing the qualities or 
characteristics that persons or things possess, such 
as '^a brave boy," " 2i fine day," ''a black horse," 
fall into another group, that of adjectives. These 
different groups of words are called the Parts of 
Speech. Classification is the first essential of Gram- 
mar. Indeed, every science must rest on a classi- 



4 English Gratmnar [chap, i 

fication of the matter of which it treats : it is 
indispensable, for instance, to botany that it should 
classify plants and flowers, and to zoology that it 
should classify animals, according to some rational 
system. 

(2) Another important branch of Grammar, In- 
flection, treats of the changes of form that particular 
words or classes of words undergo, and the effect 
of these changes on the meaning of the words. The 
noun Jolin, for example, may appear in the form 
John's^ as when we say, "Jolins book"; or in the 
form Johns, as' when we say, ^^both Johns were 
there." The various forms which a word may as- 
sume constitute its Inflection. If we would under- 
stand our language thoroughly, it is necessary that 
we should have a clear and complete idea of the 
systems by which words change their form in order 
to express different meanings. 

(3) A third important branch of Grammar is Syn- 
tax, which treats of relations between words. Let us 
take, for example, the sentences,'' the boy is hungry " 
and '' I am hungry." Now it is evident that it is not 
in accordance with the laws of our language to say 
''the boy mn hungry" and "I is hungry," though the 
words am and is are quite proper in the former set 
of instances. The reason why we choose one word 
and not the other, in each case, depends not upon 
the words themselves, but upon the relation between 
boy and is or between / and am, and therefore belongs 
to Syntax. 



CHAP. I] Grammar and its Divisions 5 

These three parts of Grammar follow one another 
naturally, and together make up a logical and com- 
plete system. When we have classified the words 
in the language satisfactorily, when we have noted 
their changes in form, and when we have ascer- 
tained the relation which they may bear to one 
another according to English usage, we shall have 
covered all of the field of English Gramimar that is 
essential to an understanding of the system of the 
language. 

4. The Purpose of Grammar. — The purpose of Gram- 
mar is to make clear the customs, usages, and laws 
pertaining to a given language. Many persons are 
so familiar with these usages and law^s that they 
would follow them even if they had never seen 
them systematically arranged in the form of Gram- 
mar. But it will readily be seen that the study of 
Grammar is of great value, especially to the young, 
in that it enables any one who gives his mind to it 
to gain a systematic idea of his mother tongue, and 
thus to speak it in accordance with the essential 
principles of the language. Correctness is not, how- 
ever, the only object we may have in the study of 
Grammar. Grammar is, like all sciences, an excellent 
means of training the mind, for it teaches one to 
observe and to classify.^ It is, indeed, more valuable 
in one respect than many other sciences, because it 

1 See also the comment on Grammar as the crystallization of thought 
in Appendix, V. 



6 English G}'ammar [chap, i 

is, in a certain sense, the key to all sciences. Gram- 
mar deals with the system by which we express our 
thoughts, and thus not only trains us in systematic 
thinking, but helps to give us accuracy and facility 
in the logical expression of thought. Another impor- 
tant reason for the study of Grammar lie^ in the im- 
portance which we attach to the English tongue. 
When we consider the great literature that is written 
in our language ; when we reflect that it is used not 
only by seventy millions of our countrymen, but by 
forty millions of people in Great Britain and Ireland, 
and by many millions more in the British colonies; 
when we realize that it is our own language and that 
of our fathers, and that it is associated forever with 
the destinies of our race, we shall no m^ore feel con- 
tented to remain ignorant of its laws and usages 
than we should be not to know the history of our 
own nation and the geography of our own country, 

5. Historical Grammar. — It is important not only 
that we should have a clear and systematic idea of 
the English language as it exists to-day, but that we 
should have some knowledge of the language as it 
was in the days of Shakspere and Chaucer, and even 
in times more remote. To learn to read Old English 
or Anglo-Saxon, as English before the Norman Con- 
quest is called, is almost like learning a new language, 
and much of what Chaucer wrote, and indeed many 
words and phrases in Shakspere, cannot be under- 
stood without a knowledge of the language in earlier 



CHAP, i] Grmrtmar and its Divisions 7 

centuries than ours. A systematic account of the 
usages of the Enghsh language through the greater 
part or the whole of its existence, indicating the prog- 
ress of the language at different periods, and explain- 
ing its development, is called Historical Grammar. 
In this volume it will not be wise to allow ourselves 
to stray far beyond the boundaries of our own cen- 
tury. We deal here with English as it is written and 
spoken to-day. For purposes of explanation, how- 
ever, it may sometimes be necessary to refer to older 
English forms than those of which we treat. 

QUESTIONS 

I. What is Grammar? [The teacher is recommended to 
assist the pupil in distinguishing Grammar from rhetoric, which 
deals ^yith the most effective means of expressing ourselves 
clearly, forcibly, and beautifully, and from logic, which deals 
with the most effective means of expressing ourselves logically, 
i.e.^ without incorrect reasoning. Grammar, it should be noticed, 
is largely concerned with the classification of words and with 
customs prescribing the use of certain forms of words under cer- 
tain circumstances. Rhetoric, on the other hand, deals with the 
precise force of words and the principles that guide us in com- 
bining them effectively. See also Appendix, V.] 2. Why do we 
exclude spelling and pronunciation from our present study ? On 
what authority do ^' correct '' spelling and '^ correct " pronunciation 
rest? 3. W^hat branch of Grammar do we first consider? Why? 
What is inflection? What is syntax? W^hy should these divi- 
sions of Grammar be treated in the order stated? 4. What 
reasons make the study of Grammar important? 5. What is 
Historical Grammar? Is it difficult? Why? 



E^iglish Gi'Lunmar [chap, ii 



CHAPTER II 

THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE 

6. The Indo-European Family of Languages. — 7. The Teu- 
tonic Languages: Low German. — 8. Old English or Anglo- 
Saxon. — 9. Middle English. — 10. Modern English. ~ 
11. The Language of Literature, the Language of Conver- 
sation, AND THE Language of the People. 

6. The Indo-European Family of Languages. — Lan- 
guages that have a common source are said to 
belong to the same family. The relationship of 
all the languages of the world has not yet been 
satisfactorily determined, but scholars of this cen- 
tury, after an almost incredible amount of labor, 
have succeeded in discovering much about the rela- 
tionship to one another of the languages that form 
the two most important families — the Semitic family 
and the Indo-European family. The relationship 
between these two families, however, still remains 
wholly unknown. To the first family belong Hebrew, 
the language in which the greater part of the Old 
Testament is written, and Arabic, which is widely 
used in various parts of Asia and Africa. To the 
second, the Indo-European family, belong several 
languages of India and Persia, and almost all the 
European languages. The common ancestry of all 



CHAP. II] TJie English Language 9 

the languages of this family establishes the fact 
that the peoples who first used them were in the 
remote past near neighbors, or else offshoots of a 
people who spoke a parent language, from which 
all the separate languages have been in large meas- 
ure derived. This set of neighboring tribes or this 
parent people, who, according to some theories, lived 
in Southern Russia or in adjacent parts of Asia, and 
from whom emigrant bands broke away to inhabit 
India, Persia, and different parts of Europe, is usually 
known as the Aryan people. The whole great family 
is most appropriately called Indo-European, inasmuch 
as the ancient Indian tongues are regarded as the 
best representatives of the original Aryan speech, 
of which we have only indirect knowledge. It is 
also sometimes called Indo-Germanic, on account of 
the prominence in Europe of the Germanic or Teu- 
tonic peoples. Indo-European, however, is the pref- 
erable name. 

7. The Teutonic Languages: Low German. — Of the 

European languages which belong to the Indo- 
European family there are several sets or groups, 
the members of which bear a close resemblance to 
one another. One group is that of the Celtic lan- 
guages, that is, those spoken by the various Celtic 
tribes which occupied Western Europe and the British 
Isles. To this group belongs Welsh, the language 
of the ancient inhabitants of England; the native 
Irish, or Erse; and Gaelic, the language of the 



lO E^iglish Grammar [chap, ii 

Scotch Highlanders. A second group is that of 
the ItaUc languages, to which belongs Latin, as well 
as the modern Romance languages (such as Italian, 
Spanish, and French), which are founded on Latin. 
Of most importance to us is a third group, that of 
the Teutonic languages, or those belonging to the 
kindred Teutonic or Germanic peoples, — the Ger- 
mans, the Dutch, the Flemish, the Danes, the Swedes, 
the Norwegians, and the Icelanders. This large 
group we may, for our present purpose, divide into 
three main branches, — (i) the Scandinavian branch, 
comprising the Danish, Swedish, Norwegian, and 
Icelandic languages ; (2) the High German branch, 
represented by modern German, a descendant of the 
language originally spoken by the part of the race 
which lived in the //^^//lands of Europe ; and (3) the 
Low German branch, comprising the languages 
spoken by the inhabitants of the /^ze/lands near the 
coast. To this third branch belong Dutch, Flemish, 
and Old English or Anglo-Saxon, the language of 
the Angles, the Saxons, and the other Teutonic con- 
querors of England. 

8. Old English, or Anglo-Saxon. — The original in- 
habitants of England belonged to the Celtic race, 
were called Britons, and spoke a language some- 
what like Welsh. They were conquered by the 
Romans, who made Britain a province of the Roman 
Empire, built roads and towns, and carried on min- 
ing and a considerable commerce. The great bulk 



CHAP. II] The English Langitage 1 1 

of the Celtic population, however, was uninfluenced 
by Roman civilization, and only slight traces of 
Latin were left in the British language. In the 
fifth century, when the Roman military occupa- 
tion ceased, the island relapsed into its previous 
condition of barbarism, and was in the course of a 
century overrun and conquered by three closely allied 
Low German tribes, — the Jutes, the Saxons, and the 
Angles. The Britons were driven into the west and 
north of the island. Those who rem.ained under Eng- 
lish rule were made slaves. The different dialects 
spoken by the conquering tribes then became the 
language of the country. From very early times, 
however, these tribes agreed in calling themselves 
Angles (English). Their language thus became 
known as English. 

Old English is the English used before the 
French-speaking Normans conquered the island, 
and changed the language so radically. It is very 
often called Anglo-Saxon, that is, the language of 
the English Saxons^ as distinguished from that of 
the German Saxons, but the term Old English is 
preferable. Old English took a number of words 
from the language of the conquered tribes (mostly 
names of places, such as Aberdeen^ '^ mouth of the 
Dee "), just as we have taken names of places (such 
as Mississippi, ''the father of waters") from the 

1 After the Norman conquest it became customary to speak of the 
older Teutonic inhabitants as Saxons. The term Enghsh covered both 
Normans and Saxons. 



1 2 English Grammar [chap, ii 

Indian languages. These Celtic words included a 
few of Latin origin (such as Chester, that is, castra, 
''camp"), which the Britons had acquired from the 
Romans. Old English also took other words directly 
from the Latin (such as mountain, cook, altar, bishop, 
mass), especially after the introduction ^of Christi- 
anity, for Latin was the official language of the 
Church. Through the strong Danish influence it 
also acquired certain Scandinavian words (such as 
family names ending in son, e.g., Johnson, and names 
of places ending in by, e.g., Whitby). But English 
remained essentially unaltered until after the Norman 
conquest, when the French language began to exer- 
cise an important influence over it. 

9. Middle English. — The Norman conquerors of 
England were Scandinavians by origin, but they 
had been for a century and a half settled in North 
France, had intermarried with the people of the 
country, and spoke a dialect of the French lan- 
guage. For a century and more after the settling of 
the Normans in England, there were two languages 
spoken there, — French by the Normans, English by 
the native English population. Gradually, however, 
the two parts of the population became less distinct, 
and the two languages were fused into one. The new 
English which the amalgamated population spoke we 
call Middle English, because it is the second of the 
three great historical divisions of the language, i.e., 
Old English, Middle English, and Modern English. 



CHAP. II] The English Language 13 

Middle English is most familiar to us through Chaucer, 
who wrote in the fourteenth century, and was the 
greatest writer of the period. Middle English is 
distinguished from Old English by the loss of some of 
the older forms of inflection (§ 27), though the syntax 
of the language still remained essentially Teutonic, 
and by the addition of a very large number of 
words derived from the French. The importance of 
this last fact is great. Though our language is the 
English language, there are more words in it of 
foreign than of English origin. Many of these words 
come directly from the Latin, which has had a strong 
influence on English, but an even greater number 
come to us indirectly from the French, which, on 
account of the supremacy of the Normans and on 
account of the close relations for centuries between 
France and England, exercised a very powerful influ- 
ence on the English vocabulary. Now, the French 
vocabulary comes, in great measure, from the Latin, 
so that the majority of English words are directly or 
indirectly of Latin origin. In such a sentence, for 
instance, as ''the majority of secondary schools do 
not prepare pupils for entrance to college," majority^ 
secondary^ schools, prepare, pupils, e7itrance, college, all 
come, directly or indirectly, from the Latin. The 
smaller words, however, such as we use in almost 
every sentence we make, — the, for, that, and, but, 
for instance, — as well as a large number of our 
common, homely words, are of native origin. In the 
line, ''It was the schooner Hesperus that sailed the 



14 Englisli Grammar [chap, n 

wintry sea," for example, all the words except Hes- 
perus are native English words. ^ 

10. Modern English. — About the time of Shak- 
spere the language took on its modern character- 
istics. It lost still more of its inflections, )X acquired 
a host of new words through the Latin, and it drew 
largely from almost all the modern European lan- 
guages, and from many tongues besides. Modern 
English is, to a very large degree, London English, 
for the great English capital, from Chaucer's period 
down, has naturally, ^ through its literary, political, 
and social ascendency, made its form of the lan- 
guage prevail in English speech and writing. London 
English has thus become what we may call the sta^id- 
ard English of the British Empire and of the whole 
English-speaking race. In the spoken or written Eng- 
lish of the United States, where relations with England 
are necessarily less close than those existing between 
Canada or Australia and England, many slight diver- 
gences have arisen from the spoken and written Eng- 
lish of England. These are due to changes of cus- 
toms in both countries, to the introduction of new 
words and expressions, more especially in the United 
States, and to the tendency in each country to depart 
in minute particulars from the original common 
basis. There has thus arisen in the United States a 
slightly different standard, that of the language as it 

^ For the difference in effect between native English words and 
words of Latin origin, see Hill's Principles of Rhetoric^ pp. 96-102. 



cHAr. II] The English Language 1 5 

is spoken and written by educated Americans. The 
differences between the two varieties of standard Eng- 
lish consist, however, in minute details of accent, pro- 
nunciation, idiom, and usage, and though they are 
sometimes striking, they are relatively slight, and can 
in no way be regarded as affecting the general char- 
acter of the language. 

11. The Language of Literature, the Language of 
Conversation, and the Language of the People. — The 

student must be prepared to find written English 
differing in some slight particulars from spoken Eng- 
lish. In conversation, for instance, we habitually 
use such contractions as do7it^ shant, wont, and 
many familiar words and expressions which are rarely 
found in more dignified discourse or in print. There 
are, moreover, many English words and expressions, 
such as hain't, zvorser, which are not employed, even 
in conversation, by educated speakers. We have, 
then, three kinds of English, each differing to a cer- 
tain degree from the others: (i) literary English, or 
the words and constructions which we use in writing ; 
(2) colloquial English, or the forms which we use in 
conversation; and (3) what we m3.y call v?^lgar (irom 
the Latin vnlgns, crowd) English, i.e., English used, 
whether in speech or in writing, by the great mass of 
the uneducated, on whom the vocabulary and con- 
structions used in literature have no great influence.^ 

1 Vulgar English also includes dialect. A dialect, such as Scotch, is 
a local form of the language, greatly at variance with ordinary usage 



1 6 English Grammar [chap, ii 

This grammar undertakes to deal chiefly with literary 
English, though it frequently refers to colloquial 
English, and sometimes to vulgar English, for illus- 
tration or explanation. 

QUESTIONS 

I. What is a family of languages? To what family does 
Hebrew belong? What is meant by the Aryans? By the Indo- 
European languages? Why is the term Indo-European prefer- 
able to the term Indo-Germanic? 2. 'Name two main groups 
of the Indo-European languages. To which group does Welsh 
belong? To which Swedish? Name two branches of the Teu- 
tonic group. To which does Swedish belong? To which 
Dutch? 3. The Old English vocabulary was influenced by 
that of two nations who held power in England before the 
Anglo-Saxons, and two who held power after. Name them, 
and state the historical facts to which these influences were due. 

and spoken throughout a district. There are a number of dialects in 
England, and there are several in America, as, for example, that of the 
Pennsylvania " Dutch," though in the United States the difference be- 
tween standard (§ 10) English and local English is far less striking than 
in Great Britain. The student should bear in mind that "vulgar" 
English, in the sense that we give the word, is not necessarily a term 
of reproach. Dialectic expressions are often very beautiful and inter- 
esting, especially "when they are dear to us by association or have been 
consecrated, as it were, by centuries of local usage. Vulgar English, 
as we shall see, is often a survival of what was in its day good literary 
and colloquial English. The distinction between literary and vulgar 
English is frequently a matter of taste. The student should be encour- 
aged to notice dialectic forms, to inquire into their origin, and to dis- 
cuss the difference in effect between them and the corresponding 
expressions in literary or colloquial English. lie should avoid vulgar 
English when it is ignorant, slovenly, or brutal; but he should not 
forget that even from the scorned speech of the vulgar have often 
sprung words and constructions that have been admitted into litera- 
ture. This process is always going on. The whole subject is treated 
at length in works on rhetoric. 



CHAP. II] The English Language 17 

4. Name the three great periods of the English language. 
What writer do you associate with the second? What is his 
greatest work? How did the English vocabulary of the second 
period differ from that of the first ? With what other group of 
languages might English possibly be classed, from one point of 
view, on account of this difference? 5. Where is modern 
English spoken? Why, and to what degree, does it differ in 
different localities ? What may be regarded as standard Eng- 
lish ? 6. Distinguish from one another literary English, col- 
loquial English, and vulgar English. What is a dialect? Men- 
tion several dialects in English. 7. Continue the process begun 
in the "tree " given below, so as to show graphically the families, 
groups, and branches to which English belongs, and indicate, if 
you can, in some similar way, the chief foreign influences that 
were brought to bear upon Old English. 

Aryan 



European Indo-Iranian 



1 8 English Grammar [chap, m 



CHAPTER III 

THE PARTS OF SPEECH 

12. Plan of Procedure. — 13. The Necessity of Classification; 
THE Parts of Speech. — 14. The Noun. — 15. The Adjective. 
— 16. The Pronoun. — 17. The Verb. — 18. The Subject of 
a Verb. — 19. The Object of a Verb. — 20. The Adverb.— 
21. The Preposition. — 22. The Conjunction. — 23. The In- 
terjection. — 24. The Same Word as Different Parts of 
Speech. — 25. Groups of -Words as Parts of Speech ; Clauses ; 
Phrases. 

12. Plan of Procedure. — The first part of Gram- 
mar which we shall consider in this volume is the 
classification of words (Parts of Speech) according 
to their uses. The second part is that which treats 
of the changes of form which are made in words 
to indicate differences in meaning (Inflection). The 
third part is Syntax, which has to do with the rela- 
tions that words bear to one another when employed 
in sentences. 

13. The Necessity of Classification ; the Parts of 
Speech. — Grammar does not aim to give an account 
of each separate word in the language. That is 
the purpose of a dictionary. Its object is rather to 
make clear the system or theory of the language. 
Exactly as in an account of an army one would not 
pretend, except for some unusual purpose, to discuss 



CHAP. Ill] TJie Parts of Speech 19 

the personal history or characteristics of every officer 
and private, but only to make clear the use and char- 
acter and organization of each group in the army, — 
the infantry, cavalry, and artillery, for instance, — so, 
in our account of the English language, it will be our 
first duty to reach a satisfactory classification of Eng- 
lish words according to their various uses or func- 
tions. Words that are names of persons, places, 
objects, or things, we call nouns; words that make 
assertions we call verbs, proceeding in this manner 
until we have exhausted the list of possible uses to 
which words may be put. The Parts of Speech, 
then, are the classes into which words fall when 
they are arranged according to their uses or func- 
tions. 

14. The Noun. — Names of persons, places, or ob- 
jects we call nouns. John, Abraham Lincoln, San 
Francisco, Mississippi, and all similar words which 
designate persons or places, fall obviously into this 
group, as well as dog, lion, water, gold, and the 
enormous number of words that designate tangible 
objects. But virtjte, whiteness, charity, though they 
do not denote tangible objects, are still to be included 
in this group, because they are name-words for quali- 
ties or things in the abstract. It is scarcely neces- 
sary to add that it is not the thing or person — the 
knife, the dog, the lion — that we call a noun, but 
the name of the person or thing, the word knife, 
dog, lion. 



20 English Grammar [chap, hi 

In the following passage the nouns are printed in 

italics : 

" Our sport was indifferent. The fish did not bite freely, and 
we frequently changed our ground without bettering our luck. 
We were at lerigth anchored close under a ledge of rocky coast^ 
on the eastern side of the island of Manhatta. It was a still, 
warm day. The stream whirled and dimpled by lis, without a 
wave or even a ripple^ and everything was so calm and quiet 
that it was almost startling when the kingfisher would pitch him- 
self from the branch of some high tree^ and after suspending 
himself for a 7nonient in the air^ to take his ai77i^ would souse 
into the smooth water after his prey. While we were lolling in 
our boat^ half drowsy with the warm stillness of the day and the 
didness of our sporty one of our pa?-ty, a worthy alderman, was 
overtaken by a slumber, and, as he dozed, suffered the sinker of 
his drop line to lie upon the bottom of the river. On w'aking, 
he found he had caught something of i77iportance from the 
weight. On drawing it to the surface, we were much surprised 
to find it a long pistol of very curious and outlandish /^j/^/<?//, 
which, from its rusted conditio7i, and its stock being worm-eaten 
and covered with bar?iacles, appeared to have lain a long ti77ie 
under water.'''' — Irving : Tales of a Traveller. 

15. The Adjective. — Words used to limit or modify 
the meaning of nouns we call adjectives. For ex- 
ample, the nouns coast and side in the second sen- 
tence of the passage printed above w^ould apply 
equally well, if taken by themselves, to all coasts 
or all sides that could be found or imagined. • The 
word rocky, however, limits the meaning of coast, so 
that it applies, not to all coasts, but only to those 
coasts which are rocky, just as the word eastern limits 
the meaning of the noun side, so that it can no longer 
apply to all sides of the object in question, but only to 
that particular side which the prefixed word indicates. 



CHAP. Ill] Tlie Parts of Speech 2 1 

In like manner, in the same passage, still and zvarm 
limit day^ high limits tree, worthy limits alderman^ 
and long, curious, outlandish, rusted, and long limit 
the nouns pistol, fashion, condition, and time. The 
adjective is, therefore, not an independent word. Its 
distinguishing trait is that it is always used to limit 
another word, which it usually precedes, and that 
other word is always a noun or its equivalent. 

Three cautions with regard to adjectives must be 
added. First, in such phrases as the farmer s sheep, 
the pupil must notice that, though farmers limits the 
meaning of sheep, it is not therefore an adjective. 
The use of the word is like that of an adjective, but 
it is primarily a noun, inasmuch as it is a name-word. 
Fa7'mer is, then, a noun, and is here used in a par- 
ticular form, the possessive case, having, as all nouns 
in that case have, an adjectival force ; but it has not 
ceased to be a noun, nor does it strictly belong to the 
group that we call adjectives. Second, nouns may 
sometimes be used as adjectives, as in ''a drop line" . 
(in the passage above), '' a gold cross," '' a Mississippi 
boat," '' 2. football game." Each of these limiting 
words might, under other circumstances, be used as 
a name-word, as, for example, in ^^a single drop,'' 
^' a search for gold,'' ^^a glimpse of the Mississippi," 
''a game oi football." Third, adjectives are some- 
times used as nouns. We speak of ''a brave man" 
and '^ a fair woman," using the words brave and fair 
as adjectives. But we also say, '^none but the brave 
deserves the fair," Here brave and fair may be 



22 EnglisJi Grammar [chap, m 

taken as adjectives limiting ma7t and zvoman under- 
stood. It is better, however, to class them as adjec- 
tives used as nouns, just as a moment ago we classified 
certain words as nouns used as adjectives. In English 
the same word may often be used, at different times, in 
two or more ways as different parts of speech, and we 
act in harmony with the genius of our language when 
we classify a word according to the way in which it 
is used in a given instance, not "according to the way 
in which it might be used in some other instance. 

EXERCISE 

I. In the following passage the principal adjectives 

are printed in italics. Find (i) the nouns they limit, 

and (2) the nouns which are not accompanied by 

adjectives. 

" His body, which was nearly naked^ presented a ^ terrific em- 
blem of death, drawn in intermingled colors of white and black. 
His closely shaved head, on which no other hair than the well- 
k7iown and chivalrons scalping-tuft was preserved, was without 
ornament of any kind, with the exception of a solitajy eaglets 
plume that crossed his crown and depended over the left shoulder. 
A tomahawk and scalping-knife, of Ejiglish manufacture, were in 
the girdle ; while a short military rifle, of that sort with which 
the policy of the whites armed their savage allies, lay carelessly 
across his bare and sinewy knee. The expanded chest, full- 
formed limbs, and grave countenance of this warrior would de- 
note that he had reached the vigor of his days, though no symp- 
toms of decay appeared to have yet w^eakened his manhood." 

— Cooper : The Last of the Mohlcafis. 

1 An adjective sometimes follows its noun. Here the sense is, His 
body, which was nearly [a] naked [body]. 

2 An, a, and the form a special class of adjectives called articles. 
We shall later treat them in detail. 



CHAP. Ill] The Parts of Speech 23 

2. In the following passage find (i) the nouns, 

(2) the adjectives : 

" Sweet was the sound, when oft at evening's close 
Up yonder hill the village murmur rose ; 
There, as I passed with careless steps and slow. 
The mingling notes came softened from below ; 
The swain responsive as the milk-maid sung, 
The sober herd that lowed to meet their young ; 
The noisy geese that gabbled o'er the pool. 
The playful children just let loose from school ; 
The watch-dog's voice that bayed the whispering wind. 
And the loud laugh that spoke the vacant mind ; 
These all in sweet confusion sought the shade." 

— Goldsmith : The Deserted Village. 

16. Pronouns. — Words used instead of nouns, re- 
ferring to a person or thing without naming him 
or it, we call pronouns. In such a sentence as '' I 
bought it of him for her," /, liim, and Jier refer to 
three persons supposed to be known to the reader, 
without naming them, and it to some equally well- 
known object. If the name-words which are here 
represented by pronouns were inserted, the sentence 
might read, '' the father bought a toy of the dealer 
for his daughter." The class of pronouns is a small 
one, and will be later described in detail. The chief 
pronouns are /, ine^ we^ its, yotiy he, him, she, her, it, 
they, them, 

[It is more important, at this stage, that the pupil should be 
trained in distinguishing nouns and adjectives, as in the preced- 
ing exercise, and verbs, subjects, and objects, as in the following 
exercises, than in distinguishing pronouns. The passages quoted 
on pages 25 and 26 may, however, be used for an exercise on 
pronouns.] 



24 English Grammar [chap, hi 

17. Verbs. — Words with which we make state- 
ments or assertions we call verbs. It will at once 
be apparent that no nouns, no names, can constitute 
a statement. Adjectives and pronouns are equally 
powerless. Men, brave, they, either separately or 
when placed together, do not make an^ assertion. 
If we add the word are, however, we can make a 
complete assertion, ^^they are brave men." Here 
are is a verb; so is waves in "the flag waves over 
land and sea," and whistles in "the wind whistles 
through the trees." Remove these words, and you 
have nothing but combinations of other parts of 
speech, which may together suggest an idea, but 
cannot actually express an idea. A verb may consist 
of two or even more words in conjunction, as " he may. 
have been injured'' ; " he should have come earlier." 

18. The Subject of a Verb. — Verbs make asser- 
tions or statements, and assertions or statements 
must always be made about a person or a thing. 
The noun (or its equivalent) about which an asser- 
tion is made by means of a verb is called the subject 
of the verb. The verb itself is called the predicate 
(i.e., that which asserts). In the sentences, "the 
boy runs " ; " the boy was hurt by a falling timber " ; 
"the boy is too ill to walk," different assertions are 
made about the noun boy, which is the subject of 
the verbs runs, was hurt, is, though in the last case 
the verb is, which is of a peculiar sort, is not capable 
of making by itself a complete assertion, and has to 



CHAP. Ill] The Parts of Speech 2$ 

be supplemented by other words. The subject of a 
verb may always be ascertained by placing who or 
what before the verb, and forming a question. Thus, 
if we ask, ''who runs .^ " 'Svho was hurt .^ " ''who 
is [ill] ? " the answer, doj/, indicates that that noun 
is the subject of each of the verbs. 

EXERCISE 

I. In the following passage the verbs are italicized. 
Find (i) the nouns which are their subjects ; (2) other 
nouns ; (3) the adjectives. 

'^ The frame of the white man was like that of one who /lad 
known 1 hardships and exertion from his earhest youth. His per- 
son, though muscular, was rather attenuated than full ; but every 
nerve and muscle appeared strung and indurated by unremitted 
exposure and toil. He wore a hunting-shirt of forest green, 
fringed with faded yellow, and a summer cap of skins which had 
been shorn of their far. He also bore a knife in a girdle of wam- 
pum, like that which C07ifi7ied the scanty garments of the Indian, 
but no tomahawk. His moccasins were ornamented after the 
gay fashion of the natives, while the only part of his underdress 
which appeared below the hunting-frock was a pair of buckskin 
leggings that laced at the sides, and which were gartered above 
the knees with the sinews of a deer. A pouch and horn co7n- 
pleted his personal accoutrements, though a rifle of great length 
leaned against a neighboring sapling. The eye of the hunter, 
or scout, whichever he ?mght be^ was small, quick, keen, and rest- 
less, roving while he spoke, on every side of him, as if in quest of 
game, or distrusting the sudden approach of some lurking enemy. 
Notwithstanding the symptoms of habitual suspicion, his counte- 
nance was not only without guile, but at the moment at which 
he is introduced, it was charged v;ith an expression of sturdy 
honesty." — Cooper : The Last of the Mohicans. 

^ The subject of the verb is here the pronoun ivho. In some of the 
following sentences the pronouns which, he, that, and it are the subjects 
of verbs. 



26 English Grmmnar [chap, hi 

2. In the following passage pronouns and nouns 
which are the subjects of verbs are italicized. Find 
the verbs. 

" We came from the place where the sim is hid at night, over 
great plains where the buffaloes live, until we reached the big 
river. There we fought the Alligewi, till the gro7/7id was red 
with their blood. The Maqtias followed at a distance. We 
said the coicntry should be ours from the place where the water 
runs up no longer on this stream, to a river twenty suns' journey 
toward the summer. The land we had taken like warriors, we 
kept like men. We drove the Maquas into the woods with the 
bears. They only tasted salt at the licks ; they drew no fish from 
the great lake ; we threw them the bones." 

— Cooper : The Last of the Mohicans. 

19. The Object of a Verb. — Verbs most frequently 
represent action, as in ^* the bullet i-Zr/z^/^ the mark/' 
and they often represent actions as directly affect- 
ing persons or things. Nouns (or their equiva- 
lents) which represent persons or things as thus 
affected are said to be the objects of verbs. Not 
all verbs have objects. Thus, in ''the bird sang 
sweetly," there is no noun that is represented as 
being acted on by the verb. The object of a verb, 
if it has one, may always be ascertained by placing 
whom or zvhat before the verb, and framing a ques- 
tion. Thus, if in the sentences, '' he saw nothing," 
''he puffed his pipe in silence," we ask " zvJiom or 
what did he see.'^ " " whom or zvJiat did he puff } " we 
shall recognize that nothing and pipe are the objects 
of saw and puffed. The student may be at first 
puzzled by such sentences as "there he was seen," 
"his cabin was rudely constructed," where lie and 



CHAP. Ill] TJie Pai'ts of Speech 27 

cabin might perhaps be supposed to be the objects 
of the verbs was seen and zvas constructed^ because 
he and cabin are the objects affected by the action of 
the verb. On analysis, however, it will be seen that 
Jie and cabin represent the things about w^hich the 
assertion is made; they answer the questions, '^ who 
was seen ? " '' wJio or zvhat was constructed ? " 

EXERCISE 

In the following passage the verbs are italicized. 
Find (i) their subjects ; (2) their objects. 

'^ The beach shelved gradually within the cove, but the current 
swept deep and black and rapid along its jutting points. The 
negro paused, raised his remnant of a hat, and scratched his 
grizzled poll for a moment, as he regarded this nook ; then sud- 
denly clapping his hands, he stepped exultingly forward, and 
pointed to a large iron ring, stapled firmly in the rock, just where 
a broad shelf of stone furnished a commodious landing place. 
It was the very spot^ where the red-caps had landed. Years 
had changed the more perishable features of the scene ; but rock 
and \xoYi yield slowly to the influence of time. On looking more 
closely Wolfert remarked three crosses cut in the rock just above 
the ring, which had no doubt some mysterious signification. Old 
Sam now readily recognized the overhanging rock under which 
his '^\^ had been sheltered^, during the thunder gust." 

— Irving: Tales of a Traveller, 

20. The Adverb. — Words that limit or modify the 
meaning of verbs we call adverbs. For instance, 
in the sentences, ''he rushed madly,'' ''he called 
yesterday^' "he sang well,'' we classify as adverbs 
the w^ords madly, yesterday, and zvell, which limit the 

1 The teacher is recommended to call the pupil's attention to the 
fact that spot is not the object of ivas. 



28 English Grammar [chap, hi 

meaning of the verbs rushed, called, and sarig in 
much the same way that adjectives Hmit nouns. 
Adverbs Umit the meaning of verbs by indicating 
the manner in which, the time at which, or the extent 
to which the action represented by the verb takes 
place. Adverbs may also limit adjectives, as in 
''very brave," ''exceedingly strong," or even other 
adverbs, as in ^^he sang very well." The student 
must at this stage be satisfied if he gets an idea of 
the main use of the adverb. It is often a puzzling 
part of speech, and we shall later study it in detail. 

21. The Preposition. — Words used to show the 
relation between nouns or pronouns and other words 
(nouns, pronouns, adjectives, or verbs) we call prepo- 
sitions. Such words as to, from, at, by, with, fall 
into this class. When we say, " I came from the 
city," " I went to the city," " I live in the city," " I 
rode through the city," we indicate, in each case, by 
the italicized word, the relation existing between city 
and the verb of the sentences. As in the case of 
adverbs, a more detailed explanation must be post- 
poned until we have examined with care some of 
the other parts of speech. 

22. The Conjunction. — Words that connect words, 
groups of words, or statements, we call conjunc- 
tions. In ''bread and butter," " cavalry and infantry," 
and connects pairs of nouns; in ''safe and sound" 
it connects a pair of adjectives; in "around and 
through the house," a pair of prepositions; in "he 



CHAP. Ill] The Pai'ts of Speech 29 

sought him long and earnestly," a pair of adverbs ; 
in *'he admired and respected him," a pair of verbs. 
In the following instances the italicized conjunctions 
connect statements or assertions: ''the man is friend- 
less and I take him under my protection," ''the 
hunter was a powerful man, but he was only an infant 
in the hands of his enemy," " I left you because it 
was necessary," "stay here ttntil I call you," "keep 
quiet ^you value your life." A further analysis of 
the nature and use of conjunctions must be postponed 
to a later chapter. 

23. The Interjection. — Exclamatory words, expres- 
sive of sudden emotion, we call interjections. In 
written English an interjection may, in most cases, 
be easily recognized in writing by the presence, 
either directly after it, or at the end of the sentence 
in which it occurs, of an exclamation point (!). The 
following are common interjections : oh^ ah, hurrah, 
pshaw, alas. 

24. The Same Word as Different Parts of Speech. — 

It should again be noticed (see § 15) that in English 
the same word may often be used, at different times, 
in two or more ways, as two or more different parts 
of speech. It is a fundamental principle of the lan- 
guage that words are not necessarily distinguished 
by their forms as filling one or another function 
in a sentence. It is only by observing with care 
the way in which a word is used that we may 
determine what part of speech it is. In "get up 



30 English Gj'ammar [chap, in 

steam," for example, steam is a noun; in ^' steam 
up the river" it is a verb. In the same v^^.y fish 
is a noun in ''he caught many fish," a verb in ''I 
will fish it out of the stream," and an adjective in ''a 
fish dinner." The student cannot too clearly bear in 
mind the fact that the classification of words as parts 
of speech is largely artificial. The parts of speech 
represent certain ways of using words, and a word 
is to be placed in one group or another, not because 
of any peculiarity of its own, but because it is some- 
times or regularly used in such and such a way. 

25. Groups of Words as Parts of Speech; Clauses; 
Phrases. — We have now roughly described the sys- 
tem by which we are accustomed to classify single 
words according to their uses. It is only necessary 
to add that often groups of words may also be classi- 
fied in the same way. For example, in ''that he 
shoidd be there surprises me greatly," the group of 
italicized words is the equivalent of a noun, or a 
noun-group, and is the subject of surprises. Simi- 
larly, we may have adjective-groups, adverb-groups, 
etc. As we discuss each of the parts of speech in 
turn, we shall also discuss the groups of words which 
may serve as its equivalent. 

It will be convenient for the student to bear in 
mind the terms clause and phrase as applied to groups 
of words. Groups of words containing a subject and 
a predicate are called clauses, e.g., that lie shoidd be 
there ; if lie comes ; zvhoever he is. Groups of words 



CHAP. Ill] The Paj'ts of Speech 3 1 

that do not contain a subject and a predicate are 
called phrases, e.g.^ at last, to conclude the matter. 

EXERCISE 

I. In the following passage the words in certain 
groups are connected by hyphens. Tell which 
groups are phrases and which clauses.^ 

" Within-our-beds awhile we heard 
The wind that-round-the-gables-roared, 
With now-and-then a ruder shock, 
Which-made-our-very-bedsteads-rock. 
We heard the loosened clapboards tost, 
The boardnails snapping in-the-frost ; 
And on us, through-the-unplastered-w^all, 
Felt the light sifted snowflakes fall. 
But sleep stole on as-sleep-will-do 
When-hearts-are-light and [when]-life-is-new. 

— Whittier : Snow-Bound. 

II. In the following passage, find (i) the nouns, 
(2) the adjectives, (3) the verbs, (4) the subjects, 
(5) the objects : 

" The companion of the church dignitary w^as a man past 
forty, thin, strong, tall, and muscular ; an athletic figure, in 
w^iich long fatigue and constant exercise seemed to have left 
none of the softer part of the human form, having reduced the 
whole to brawn, bones, and sinews, which had sustained a thou- 
sand toils, and were ready to dare a thousand more. His head 
was covered wdth a scarlet cap, faced with fur — of that kind 
which the French call inortier^ from its resemblance to the shape 
of an inverted mortar. His countenance was therefore fully dis- 
played, and its expression was calculated to impress a degree of 

1 This short exercise is intended only to fix in the pupil's mind the 
difference between a phrase and a clause. Practice in distinguishing 
the equivalence of phrases and clauses to various parts of speech will 
be given in succeeding exercises. 



32 English Grammar [chap, hi 

awe, if not of fear^ upon strangers. High features, naturally 
strong and powerfully expressive, had been burnt almost into 
negro blackness by constant exposure to the tropical sun, and 
might, in their ordinary state, be said to slumber after the storm 
of passion had passed away ; but the projection of the veins of 
the forehead, the readiness with which the upper lip and its thick 
black moustaches quivered upon the slightest emotion, plainly 
intimated that the tempest might be again and easily awakened. 
His keen, piercing, dark eyes told in every glance a history of 
difficulties subdued and dangers dared, and seemed to challenge 
opposition to his wishes, for the pleasure of sweeping it from his 
road by a determined exertion of courage and of will ; a deep 
scar on his brow gave additional sternness to his countenance, 
and a sinister expression to one of his eyes, which had been 
slightly injured on the same occasion, and of which the vision, 
though perfect, was in a slight and partial degree distorted.^' 

— Scott : Ivanhoe. 



CHAP. IV] Infiection 33 



CHAPTER IV 

INFLECTION, DERIVATION, AND COMPOSITION 

26. Inflection. — 27. Loss of Inflections in English. — 28. Der- 
ivation. — 29 . Composition. 

26. Inflection. — We have now completed our clas- 
sification of words into parts of speech. The work 
has been done only very roughly, however, and we 
shall soon return to the matter again, taking up each 
part of speech in turn, and examining it with great 
care. We mmst now consider a subject that pertains 
to several of the parts of speech, that of inflection. 
We inflect a word when we change its form in such 
a way as to modify its meaning. By changing a 
vow^el, for example, we make of the singular noun 
man the plural noun men. By slight additions we 
make man s from man and men s from fnen. From 
run we m.ay make nms^ ran^ rnnnest^ and running. 
It should be noticed, however, that inflectional 
changes do not make new words, but simply other 
forms of words. That is, we feel that horses is 
merely a different form of horse. The change, 
which in this instance consists in adding s^ serves 
a grammatical purpose, i.e., that of distinguishing 
between the singular and the plural, and may be 
applied to almost all English nouns. The inflection 



34 Ejiglish Grammar [chap, iv 

of a noun is sometimes called its declension ; the 
inflection of a verb is called its conjugation. 

27. Loss of Inflections in English. — It is important 
that the pupil should notice that English uses but 
very few changes of form to denote different mean- 
ings of words. In Latin there were separate forms 
of the verb ''love" to express ''I love," ''he loves," 
"we love," "you love," and "they love." In Eng- 
lish we use only two forms of the verb, love and loves, 
to express all these different meanings. Some lan- 
guages have even ^different forms of the verb to 
denote whether a man or a woman is represented as 
acting ; that is, for example, separate forms of the 
verb for "he loves" and "she loves." Old English, 
though not so rich in inflections as some other lan- 
guages, had at least twice or three times as many 
inflectional forms as modern English. The Old 
English noun scip (pronounced "skip"), for instance, 
meaning "ship," had not only forms which corre- 
sponded to our shifs, ships, and skips', but two addi- 
tional forms, which were used where we use such 
phrases as "to the ship,'' "to the ships." Modern 
English, however, has done away to a great extent 
with these numerous inflections by making inflec- 
tion more regular, that is, by inflecting all words in 
the same way, so far as possible, and by dropping 
almost all inflections that are not strictly necessary.^ 

1 Old English, like Latin or Greek, was a synthetic language (from 
Greek words meaning '* putting together," or '^adding"), i.e., one that 
expresses shades of meaning, and denotes relations between words, 



^ I 



CHAP, iv] Derivation 35 

28. Derivation. — Besides inflection, we have an- 
other method of changing a word so as to alter its 
meaning. Derivation is the process by which a word 
is changed from one part of speech to another, or 
from one meaning to another quite different. By a 
sHght change the adjective true becomes the adverb 
truly ^ or the noun truths and that becomes the adjec- 
tive truthful, and that the adverb truthfully or the 
noun truthfulness. In similar ways we make untrue^ 
untruly, untruthful, unt7'uthfully , and untruthfulness. 
In like manner sing becomes so7ig, singer, and 
so7igster ; good becomes goodly and goodness ; child 
becomes childlike, childish, childishly, and childish- 
ness. The important differences between inflection 
and derivation are, first, that inflection modifies the 
meaning of a word, while derivation gives it a dis- 
tinctly different meaning, or turns it into another 
part of speech or kind of word ; and, second, that 
inflection is a much more regular process than deri- 
vation. In order, for example, to make nouns refer 
to more than one person or thing, we regularly (with 

largely by means of inflection. The appropriateness of the term lies 
in the fact that in inflection a letter or syllable is usually added to the 
word that serves as a basis. Modern English, like modern French or 
German, is called an analytic (" analyzing " or " separating ") language, 
because it denotes relations between words, to a very large extent, by 
the use of separate words. Thus, the Romans said amavisset where 
we say "he would have loved." English enjoys the distinction of 
having freed itself from ancient and unnecessary inflections to a greater 
degree than any other language. As a result, our grammatical system 
is exceedingly simple, presents few irregularities, and does not burden 
the memory. 



36 English Grammar . [chap, iv 

only a very few exceptions) add to them the ending 
s or es. But although there are many common 
methods of derivation, we cannot say that any one 
of them is regularly used. We form triUh from true 
and warmth from warm, but we cannot form a 
similar noun from good, tall, or shortly We form 
piggish from pig, but elephantine from elephant ; 
from good we make goodness, but from honest not 
honestness, but honesty. We shall return to this sub- 
ject later (Appendix, II), classifying the principal 
means by which derivation is carried on, but the 
pupil will do well to bear in mind the general 
statements made above, and to notice for himself 
how common the process of derivation is. 

29. Composition. — There is still a third method by 
which changes in the form of words are brought 
about in English ; that is, by composition. In com- 
position two or more words, each of which has an 
independent meaning, are combined or compounded 
to form a new word. Black and bird, for example, 
has each its own meaning. The phrase ** black 
bird" denotes any bird that is black, such as a 
crow or a raven. A *^ blackbird," however, is not 
any bird that is black, but a particular species. 
Composition is a favorite method of word-making 
in English. The pupil has only to refer to a dic- 
tionary to see what a multitude of words is formed 
by combination with words like back, or blood, or 
head. Indeed, there are comparatively few com- 



CHAP, iv] Composition 37 

mon nouns that are not freely used in composition. 
It is necessary to add that in many compounds we 
have lost sight of the original meaning of one or 
both of the words. Breakfast, for example, is the 
meal at which we break our longest fast ; Monday 
is ^' Moonday," and nightingale (Old English, nihte- 
gale) is '^night-singer." We sometimes use for 
purposes of composition words that do not have 
an independent existence. There are no such words 
in our language as ''Anglo" and "phobia," and 
yet we have the compounds Anglo-American, Anglo- 
Indian, Anglomaniac, and Anglophobia. 

EXERCISE 

Define, in your own words, inflection, derivation, and compo- 
sition, distinguish them one from the other, and illustrate your 
statements by examples from the passage quoted on page 25. 



38 English Grammar [chap, v 



CHAPTER V 

NOUNS: KINDS OF NOUNS ^ 

30. Kinds of Nouns. — 31. Proper Nouns and Common Nouns. — 
32. Collective Nouns. — 33. Abstract Nouns and Concrete 

Nouns. 

30. Kinds of Nouns. — It is necessary to bear in 
mind that not only Ihe names of persons and ma- 
terial things are nouns, but also the names of imma- 
terial things. Eternity^ virtue^ space, for example, are 
nouns, even though the things of which they are 
the names are intangible conceptions and not tan- 
gible persons or objects. The almost countless 
names of ''things" we may group in five classes, 
(i) proper nouns, (2) common nouns, (3) collective 
nouns, (4) abstract nouns, and (5) concrete nouns. 

31. Proper Nouns and Common Nouns. — Proper nouns 
are names in the strict sense of the term, i.e., words 
which actually serve as the marks or names of persons 
and places, such as J^ohn Smith, Robinson Crusoe, 
Andover, New York, Germafty. The object of the 
proper noun is to distinguish, so far as possible, the 
person or place it designates from all other places or 
persons. The proper noun is, therefore, a mark of 
identification, though this does not necessarily mean 
that each individual or place has a name that it 



CHAP, v] Nouns : Kinds of Nouns 39 

does not share with any other individual or place. 
There are many John Smiths, for example, and there 
is an Andover in each of several states of the Union. 
A common noun, on the other hand, is one that is 
applied to a group of persons or things because they 
are alike or possess qualities in common. Dog, for 
instance, is the name of a whole group or class of 
animals. Any noun that can be applied to an indefi- 
nite number of things, such as inaft, hat, water, fire, 
book, land, is called a common noun. 

By a change in use or meaning proper nouns some- 
times become common nouns. We may speak, for 
example, of a philosopher as '' a modern Aristotle,'' or 
of a city as "the Athens of America," or of a great 
soldier as ''the Alexander oi his time," in which cases 
the nouns Aristotle, Alexander, and Athens are no 
longer names designating particular persons or 
places, but merely nouns denoting one member of 
a class of philosophers like Aristotle, conquerors like 
Alexander, or cities like Athens. Again, proper 
nouns become common nouns when things receive 
the names of persons who make or invent them, or 
of places from which they come. We speak of 
''a Steinzvay'' and ''a Chickering,'' meaning pianos 
made by celebrated manufacturers ; of ehina and 
calico, meaning the familiar articles first known to 
Europeans through China and Calicut in India ; of 
*'a Havana'' and ''a Manilla," meaning certain 
kinds of cigars. We speak, too, of ''a louis," ''a 
napoleon," ''a guinea," meaning pieces of money 



40 English Grammar [chap, v 

named for a man or a place. On the other hand, we 
sometimes make a common noun the equivalent of a 
proper noun, as in ''Father told me to give you this," 
"the President has asked to see you," where Father 
and President denote particular individuals. In such 
cases, however, it is the context or circumstances that 
limit the natural meaning of the words and give them 
a special value, and we cannot really say that the 
words themselves have been changed from common 
nouns into proper nouns. 

32. Collective Nouns. — Most nouns denoting tan- 
gible things designate only one object at a time. 
Ship may refer to any object of the class mentioned^ 
but it actually refers in each instance to the particu- 
lar object to which reference is made. Collective 
nouns are those which represent, not a single object 
of a class, but a group of similar objects. Fleet, 
library, nation, swarm, hei^d, drove, ar7ny, are all 
collective nouns naming a unit composed of obviously 
smaller units. 

33. Concrete Nouns and Abstract Nouns. — Common 
nouns may be divided into concrete nouns and ab- 
stract nouns. All common nouns denoting objects 
that are perceived by our senses, or that can be 
thought of as perceived by our senses, are called 
concrete nouns. Man, gold, night, noise, are con- 
crete nouns. On the other hand, we call abstract 
nouns those that designate a quality, a state of 
mind, a process or action. Saint, sage, thief y rnin 



CHAP, v] Nouns: Kinds of Nouns 41 

(as in '^ I visited the ruin "), opening (meaning an 
aperture), are concrete nouns ; but sanctity, wisdom, 
theft, ruin (as in ''the ruin of his fortune"), open- 
ing (as in ''the sudden opening of the door"), are 
abstract nouns. A distinct pecuHarity of the ab- 
stract noun is that, as it is the name, not of a 
real or imagined thing, but of a quahty that things 
possess, or a state in which they exist, or a process 
through which they pass, it cannot usually be found 
in the plural. We cannot say patiences, honesties, bad- 
nesses, destructions, because there is only one quality,, 
or state, or process called patience, honesty, destruc- 
tion. We may, indeed, speak of a^nbitions or wick- 
ednesses, but we really use the words in a slightly 
different sense, as designating various objects or 
kinds of ambition and various acts of wickedness. 
It is often necessary to look sharply at the mean- 
ing of a noun in order to decide whether it is abstract 
or concrete. In ''distance lends enchantment to the 
view," ''length is the quality to be desired in this 
case," "kindness is his chief characteristic," dis- 
tance, length, and kindness are abstract nouns. In 
"the distances are great," "the boat won by several 
lengths,'' " I am indebted to him for many kindnesses 
{i.e., acts of kindness)," distances, lengths, and kind- 
nesses are concrete nouns, because in the latter 
instances the words no longer stand for qualities. 
The distinction between abstract and concrete, in- 
deed, belongs to the study of logic rather than of 
grammar, and it is not worth while for a student to 



42 English Grammar [chap, v 

perplex himself greatly about it. He should notice 
carefully the following passage, in which the ab- 
stract nouns are printed in italics, but he should not 
be encouraged or required, at this time, to make any 
fine distinctions between the two classes of nouns. 

'"' Our Royalist countrymen were not heartless, dangling court- 
iers, bowing at every step, and simpering at every word. They 
were not mere machines for destruction^ dressed up in uniforms, 
caned into skilly intoxicated into valor, defending without love, 
destroying without hatred. There was a freedom in their sub- 
serviency, a nobleness in their very degradation. The sentiment 
of individual indepe^idence was strong within them. They were 
indeed misled, but by no base or selfish 7notive.^ Co7?ipassion 
and romantic honor, the prejiidices of childhood, and the vener- 
able names of history, threw over them a spell^ potent as that of 
Duessa ; and, like the Red Cross Knight, they thought that they 
were doing battle for an injured beauty, while they defended a 
false and loathsome sorceress.'' — Macaulay: Essay on Milton. 

EXERCISE 

I. In the following passages find (i) the common 
nouns, (2) the proper nouns, (3) the collective nouns, 
(4) ten abstract nouns, (5) twenty concrete nouns : 

{a) "• Neither military nor civil pomp was wanting. The 
avenues were lined with grenadiers. The streets were kept clear 
by cavalry. The peers, robed in gold and ermine, were marshalled 
by the heralds under Garter King-at-Arms.^ The judges in their 
vestments of state attended to give advice on points of law. 
Near a hundred and seventy lords, three-fourths of the Upper 
House as the Upper House then was, walked in solemn order 

1 It is hard to determine whether these nouns can best be classed as 
abstract or concrete. They do not denote tangible objects, nor, on the 
-other hand, do they denote qualities, states, or processes. 

2 Garter King-at-Arnis, the title of an official. 



CHAP, v] Nouns : Kinds of Nouns 43 

from their usual place of assembling to the tribunal. The junior 
Baron present led the way, George Eliott, Lord Heathfield, 
recently ennobled for his memorable defence of Gibraltar 
against the fleets and armies of France and Spain. The long 
procession was closed by the Duke of Norfolk, Earl Marshal 
of the realm, by the, great dignitaries, and by the brothers and 
sons of the King. Last of all came the Prince of Wales, con- 
spicuous by his fine person and noble bearing. The gray old 
walls were hung with scarlet. The long galleries were crowded 
by an audience such as has rarely excited the fears or the emula- 
tion of an orator.'' — Macaulay : Warren Hasti7igs. 

{h) '* Nay, do not the elements of all human virtues and all 
human vices ; the passions at once of a Borgia and a Luther, lie 
written, in stronger or fainter lines, in the consciousness of every 
individual bosom, that has practised honest self-examination ? 
Truly, this same world may be seen in Mossgiel and Tarbolton, 
if we look well, as clearly as it ever came to light in Crockford's, 
or the Tuileries itself." — Carlyle: Bums. 

(c) " While the Shakspeares and Miltons roll on like mighty 
rivers through the country of Thought, bearing fleets of traffickers 
and assiduous pearl-fishers on their waves ; this little Valclusa 
Fountain mil also arrest our eye : for this also is of Nature's own 
and most cunning workmanship, bursts from the depths of the 
earth, with a full gushing current, into the light of day ; and 
often will the traveller turn aside to drink of its clear waters, and 
muse among its rocks and pines ! " — Carlyle : Bums. 

{d) "First, the people of the Colonies are descendants of 
Englishmen.! England, sir, is a nation, which still, I hope, 
respects, and formerly adored, her freedom.'' 

— Burke, Speech on Conciliation with America, 

n. Give nouns standing for groups of fish, soldiers, vessels, 
legislators, disorderly people, sheep, quail, cattle, horses, musi- 
cians. 

1 The student should notice that Englishijian stands midway be- 
tween a common noun and a proper noun. It denotes one member of 
a class, just as the common nouns bear and river do; on the other 
hand, it denotes the native or inhabitant of a particular locality, and 
so acquires the force of a proper noun. 



44 EnglisJi Grammar [chap, v 

Ilf. (a) Give nouns standing for the qualities ^ possessed by 
things that are white, old, long, broad, clear, pure ; of men that 
are brave, cowardly, ignorant, wise, foolish, fat. (^) For the 
state or condition of slaves, freemen, saints, boys, men, children, 
infants, beggars. 

1 This question and the following deal with abstract nouns, and 
belong strictly to logic or rhetoric rather than to gramn^r. 



CHAP. VI] Noims : Gender 45 



CHAPTER VI 

NOUNS: GENDER 

34. Sex and Gender. — 35. Ways of Denoting Gender.— 
36. Gender denoted by Inflection. — 37. Gender denoted 
BY Composition. — 38. Gender denoted by the Use of Sepa- 
rate Words. — 39. Personification. 

34. Sex and Gender. — Gender is the grammatical 
distinction between words, or forms of ^ words, to 
denote sex. Nouns like man^ son, ox, which desig- 
nate males, and males alone, are said to be of the 
masculine gender. Nouns like woman, daughter^ 
cozv, which designate females, and females alone, 
are said to be of the feminine gender. There are 
not many nouns in English which are of the mascu- 
line or the feminine gender. Most English nouns 
which denote persons or animals, such as thief, bird, 
baker, do not attempt to indicate whether the persons 
or animals to which they refer are males or females. 
Such nouns are usually said to be of common gender, 
though it would be more sensible to say that they are 
of neither gender, or of the neuter gender. The 
latter term, however, is usually reserved for nouns 
like stone, tree, grass, which denote inanimate objects, 
with regard to which distinctions of sex or gender 
cannot be made. 



46 Englisli Gmnimar [chap, vj 

It is a marked characteristic of our language that 
it does not lay stress on distinctions of sex, recogniz- 
ing that, for the most part, it makes no difference 
in the sense of what we say whether the beings to 
which we refer are male or female. Most European 
languages, on the contrary, give gender's even to 
many or all inanimate objects. In Latin, ''table" 
was feminine, ''book" was masculine, and "river" 
neuter. In French, "knife" is masculine and 
"fork" is feminine. In German, "chair" is mas- 
culine, "door" is feminine, and "window" is neu- 
ter. In Old English, distinctions of gender were 
equally artificial. "Finger" was masculine, "hand" 
was feminine, and "woman" neuter. Our unwilling- 
ness to make artificial distinctions of sex with regard 
to inanimate objects adds greatly to the sensible and 
practical character of our language. 

In Modern English, all nouns representing lifeless 
objects without sex are neuter (except in the rare 
instances where such objects are personified: see 
§ 39), and are referred to by the pronoun it. Mas- 
culine nouns are referred to by he^ feminine nouns 
by she. Inasmuch as we have no pronoun of com- 
mon gender, nouns of common gender, such as 
coitsin, are usually referred to by either he or she, 
according to the sex, if that be known. When the 
sex is not known, or need not be emphasized, it is 
customary to use he, giving the masculine gender 
the prominence. Thus we say, " If any person in 
the audience wishes further information, I shall be 



CHAP. VI] No tins : Gender 47 

glad to furnish him with it." When it is necessary 
to make it plain that the reference covers both 
sexes, we use both pronouns, as in '' I shall be 
glad to furnish hUn or her with it." Animals and 
children are referred to by he, she, or it. Thus we 
speak of a lion or a child as it, when we refer to it 
as a mere thing, as she when we wish to designate 
it as of the female sex, and as he when we wish to 
designate it as of the male sex, or, sometimes, when 
we do not care to specify the sex. Large wild 
animals we usually refer to as ]ie ; with regard to 
common domestic animals the custom differs : we 
are apt to speak of horses and dogs as he and of 
cats as she. 

It should be borne in mind that a noun of com- 
mon gender does not become masculine or feminine 
because it is referred to by a masculine or feminine 
pronoun. Person is a noun of common gender, 
whether it be referred to as he or she ; child is a 
noun of common gender, whether it be referred to 
as he, she, or it, 

35. Ways of Denoting Gender. — In English there 
are three ways of denoting differences in gender: 
(i) by inflection, (2) by composition, and (3) by the 
use of separate words. 

36. Gender denoted by Inflection. — (i) The suffix 
ess. The addition to a masculine noun of the suffix 
ess is the most usual means of marking the feminine 
gender by inflection, as in god, goddess ; shepherd^ 



48 English Grammar [chap, vi 

shepherdess. Sometimes the feminine form has been 
shortened by the omission of a vowel or syllable, or 
otherwise slightly changed, as in abbot ^ abbess ; himter, 
huntress; lad, lass {irom laddess)\ margins, majxhton- 
ess (following 7na7rhio{jt)y the form of the masculine 
in mediaeval Latin); master, mistress (following Mr. 
[Mister], another form of master). 

(2) The sitffix ster. A common feminine suffix in 
Old English was ster. In Middle English, however, 
this termination lost its feminine force. Now spinster 
(originally a woman who spins) is the only word in 
ster that is applied only to women. A number of 
trade-names preserving .this termination, such as 

Webster {origm^lly a woman who weaves), Brewster 
(a woman who brews), Baxter {^l woman who bakes), 
have become family names. When songster and 
seamster (now an obsolete word) became regarded 
as masculine nouns, another feminine termination 
was added, and we have songstress and seamstress. 

(3) Other suffixes. En is the only other English 
feminine suffix, and that appears only in the word 
vixen, which was originally the feminine of fox. 
Other feminine suffixes appear, however, in words 
taken directly from foreign languages. Several Latin 
words, such as testator, executor, administrator, retain 
their Latin feminine forms, testatrix, executrix, ad- 
ministratrix. In heroine we retain a feminine form 
which was taken from the French, but which goes 
back to the original Greek. The German title lattd- 
gravine, the feminine of landgrave, retains a Dutch 



CHAP. VI] Nouns : Gender 49 

feminine termination. S7iltana is the feminine of 
sultanics (mediaeval Latin, ''sultan"). Czarina, in- 
fanta, signo7'a, and similar words are to be regarded 
as feminine nouns borrowed from other languages 
rather than as English words. 

37. Gender denoted by Composition. — Another 
method of denoting gender, which has almost en- 
tirely grown up since the loss of gender-inflection, is 
that of designating the masculine and the feminine 
by joining to the words in question others that in- 
dicate sex unmistakably ; thus we say he-goat, she- 
goat (sometimes, colloquially, billy-goat, nanny-goat\ 
maft-servant, maid-servant, cock-sparrow, hen-sparrow, 
bull-elephant, cow-elephant. Indeed, this method is 
that which we naturally use in making distinctions in 
gender which are not already provided for in the 
language. We sometimes use the feminine termina- 
tion ess in such cases, as in the recent word authoress. 
But literary English disapproves of even that word, 
and such forms as doctress, teacheress (on the analogy 
of governess) are found only in vulgar English. The 
better usage in all such cases consists in prefixing the 
word woman or lady, or in employing another form 
of statement. Thus we may say, ''the firm employs 
thr^Q female stenographers,'' though this would usually 
be felt to throw unnecessary prominence on the 
sex; or "three woman stenographers''; or "three 
lady stenographers," though the last phrase, like the 
frequently heard lady friend, is to be classed with col- 



50 E7iglish Grmnmar [chap, vi 

loquial or vulgar English, on account of the wholly 
unnecessary emphasis which it throws on the gen- 
tility of the persons referred to. It would be more in 
accordance with the principles of the language to say 
merely, ''the firm employed three stenographers,'' just 
as we say, '' she has acquired some reputation as an 
author'' (not authoress), neglecting entirely the dis- 
tinction of sex ; or, if the distinction of sex is impor- 
tant, '' the three stenographers that the firm employs 
are zvoinen." 

Bridegroom (literally ''bride's man") is a curious 
instance of a masculine formed from a feminine by 
composition. Woman was .originally " wife-man," that 
is, " female-man." 

38. Gender denoted by the Use of Separate Words. — 

A number of pairs of words has grown up in Eng- 
lish, usually denoting the masculine and the femi- 
nine of a certain species of animals, or distinguish- 
ing sex in the relations of domestic or social life. 
The principal pairs of this sort are : (of animals) bull 
or ox, cow ; boar, sow ; buck, doe ; bullock or steer, 
heifer ; colt (masculine or feminine), filly (feminine) ; 
cock or rooster, hen ; drake, duck ; drone, queen-bee 
(compare the preceding section) ; gander, goose ; hart, 
roe or hirid ; ram, ewe ; sire, dam. ; stallion, m^ai^e ; (in 
the relations of domestic or social \\i€) father, m,other ; 
gi'andfather, grandmother ; icncle, aunt ; husband, 
wife; son, daughter ; boy, girl; nephew, niece ; bache- 
lor, maid or spinster ; king, queen ; monk, fiun ; wiz- 



CHAP. VI] Nouns : Gender 5 1 

ard, witch ; man^ woinaft (see preceding section) ; 
lo?'d, lady ; sir, madam. It should be kept in mind 
that the words that make up each pair are generally 
derived from two separate sources, and are rarely 
formed from a single word. 

39. Personification. — We have noticed that Eng- 
lish has the advantage of being able to neglect dis- 
tinctions of sex, when they are not important for the 
purpose in hand. We may speak of a woman as a 
successful actor (rather than actress\ or as a brilliant 
or beautiful actress (rather than actor), according as 
the distinctive qualities of sex are ignored or empha- 
sized. For the purpose of emphasizing qualities 
associated with either sex, we may also make the 
distinction of sex where it does not really exist. We 
may speak, for instance, of a city or a ship as she ; 
of faith, hope, war, death, particularly in poetry, as 
she or he. This process of giving to things without 
sex a characteristic confined to persons, is called 
personification, and a noun so treated is usually 
begun with a capital letter, to show that, for the pur- 
poses of the imagination, it has become a personal 
name, or a proper noun. It should be remarked, 
however, that in such cases no change is made in 
the grammatical form of a word by inflection or com- 
position to denote that it is to be regarded as a 

person. 

EXERCISE 

I . {a) What is the gender of each of the following nouns ? 
Parent, child, man (in ^' man is mortal"), man (in "that man 



52 English Grammar [chap, vi 

is my brother"), fish, spinster, butler, mare, heiress, he-goat, 
empress, heroine, executrix, heifer, {b^ By what pronoun {he^ 
she, or if) would you refer to each ? If more than one pronoun 
could be used, state the circumstances in which each pronoun 
could be used, and give an illustration, {c) Write, in your own 
words, a short account of the ways by which the feminine gender 
is indicated in English, illustrating your explanation by words 
taken from the list. 

2. State whether each noun in the following passages is mas- 
culine, feminine, common, or neuter. 

{a) " 'Tis the clime of the East ; 'tis the land of the Sun — 

Can he smile on such deeds as his children have done? '^ 

{b) " To that high Capital where kingly Death 
Keeps his pale court in beauty and decay 
He came." 

(r) "And others came. Desires and Adorations ; . . . 
And Sorrow, with her family of Sighs ; 
And Pleasure, blind with tears, led by the gleam 
Of her own dying smile." 



CHAP, vii] Nouns: Number S3 



CHAPTER VII 

NOUNS : NUMBER 

40. Number. — 41. Formation of the Plural: Addition of j.— 
42. Formation of the Plural: Addition of en. — ^Z. For- 
mation OF THE Plural: Internal Change. — 44. Formation 
OF THE Plural: Foreign Plurals, — 45. Nouns having the 
Same Form in ^ Both Numbers. — 46. Nouns Singular in 
Form, BUT treated as Plural. — 47. Nouns Plural in Form, 

BUT treated as SINGULAR. — 48. NOUNS RARELY USED IN THE 

Plural. — 49. Nouns used only in the Plural. — 50. Nouns 
that have two meanings in the plural. — 51. plural of 
Compound Nouns. — 52. Plural of Letters and Signs. 

40. Number. — Inflection to denote gender is, as 
we have seen, not very common in English. A 
much more frequent use of inflection is that by 
which we denote number, that is, by which we make 
it evident whether we are speaking of one person 
or thing or of more than one person or thing. 
Nouns (or pronouns) which denote one person or 
thing are said to be in the singular number; nouns 
(or pronouns) which denote more than one person 
or thing are said to be in the plural number. Col- 
lective nouns (see § 32) are in the singular number; 
for, though they represent several persons or things, 
they represent them in a single group, and that 
group may be made plural, as when we speak of 
''the enemy's ^^^/^." 



54 English Grammar [chap, vii 

41. Formation of the Plural : Addition of ^ or e^. — 

The ordinary method of forming a plural in English 
is that of adding s or es to the singular. There are 
only two classes of nouns that do not follow this 
method: (i) survivals of older English usage, which 
retain older inflectional forms, and (2) fo^'eign nouns, 
which frequently retain their foreign plurals. Both 
classes we shall take up in detail in subsequent sec- 
tions. Whether s or es is to be added is determined 
by the sound. In the plural of nouns ending in a 
hissing sound (such as bush, box, chitrch, gas, topaz), 
s could not be pronounced were it not preceded by e} 

Some nouns ending in / follow an old English 
usage in changing f to v vn the plural, eg., beef 
(an ox, bull, or cow, from the French), beeves; 
calf, calves; elf, elves ; half, halves ; knife, knives ; 
loaf, loaves ; shelf, shelves ; thief, thieves. Staff (a 
stick) sometimes forms a plural staves, particularly 
in old-fashioned English, though in its more modern 
meaning, as in '' a general' s staff,'' it makes the regu- 
lar plural staffs. The plural of wharf is either ivharfs 
or wharves, but the preference is now usually given 
to the former, in accordance with the genius of our 
language, which is opposed to retaining irregularities 
in inflection. 

Nouns ending my preceded by a consonant change 
y to i before adding es, as body, bodies. Nouns end- 

^ The termination es in the plural is pronounced ez, except in the 
foreign nouns mentioned in § 44. S is pronounced z whenever it is 
possible, e.g., ho7'ses{z)., but cats. The plural of some nouns ending 
in th may be pronounced in either way, e.g.., paths{z) or paths. 



CHAP. VII] Nouns: Nitmber 55 

ing in qicy follow the same rule, as soliloquy, solilo- 
quies, qtc being regarded as a consonant. Nouns 
ending in y preceded by a vowel, on the contrary, 
form their plural regularly by adding s, as boy, boys ; 
valley, valleys. 

Nouns ending in o are somewhat peculiar in the 
formation of their plurals. Those longest established 
in the language, cargo, negro, he7''o, volcano, potato, 
tomato, etc., form their plurals in es\ those which 
seem most like foreign words — as they in reality are 
— form their plurals by adding s, as piano, soprano. 

42. Formation of the Plural: Addition of en. — In 

Old English many nouns made their plurals in e7i. 
In Modern English oxen, bretJiren, and children still 
retain this ending, though in several dialects other 
en forms still occur, as hosen and shoon in Scotch. 
Brethren and cliildren are likewise peculiar in that 
they are double plurals. The Old English plurals 
of brother and child were brothern and cJiildrn (still 
retained in the vulgar or dialectic form childei^. In 
the course of time the marks of this plural inflection 
grew unfamiliar, and the en sign of the plural was 
added. The old plural of cozv was cy, but when that 
form became unfamiliar, the en plural was added, 
making the double plural kine, still used in poetry. 
An en plural of sister, used by Chaucer, still appears 
in the vulgar sistren (''brethren and sistren"). 

43. Formation of the Plural : Internal Change. — 

Another Old English method of forming the plural 



56 English Grmmnar [chap, vii 

— occurring, however, only with monosyllables — 
was by changing the vowel of the singular, as in 
foot^ feet. This method is now preserved only in 
six words: foot, tooth, goose, louse, mouse, 7nan 
{wo7nan). In this class also may be placed cow, 
because its first plural cy was formed \Vi this way. 
See § 42. 

44. Formation of the Plural : Foreign Plurals. — It 
is natural that foreign words much used in English 
should make their plurals as English words do, and 
this tendency towards uniformity should be encour- 
aged as much as possible. . From this point of view, 
we should say bandits, formttlas, memorandinns, 
rather than banditti, formitlce, nieni07'a7ida, though 
the latter forms are all allowable. Some foreign 
nouns, however, still retain their foreign plurals. 
These the student must eventually learn by heart, 
if he does not know the languages to which the 
foreign words belong. He may, however, notice with 
profit that, with the exception of bandit (plural, ban- 
dits or banditti^, bean (beans or beaitx), dilettante 
{dilettanti), there are very few foreign words from 
the modern languages which retain their foreign 
plurals. By far the greater part of the nouns form- 
ing foreign plurals are from the Latin and Greek. 
The chief classes are : (i) nouns in a {nebula, larud), 
with plurals in ae {nebidce, larvcB) ; (2) nouns in ex ox 
ix {apex, appendix), with plurals in ices {apices, appen- 
dices)', (3) nouns in is {antithesis, basis), ^\\}[i plurals 



CHAP. VII] Noims : Number 57 

in es\ (4) nouns in tmi {animalctdunt^ stratuni)^ with 
plurals in a] (5) nouns in tis {focus, radius), with 
plurals in i {foci, radii). Almost the only common 
words that do not belong to these classes are genus 
{genera), and plienoineno7i {phenomena). It should 
be noticed that in classes (2) and (3) es is pronounced 
as ees in h^ees, not as es in horses. A very few foreign 
nouns, such as apparatus, series, species, may be used 
in the plural without change of form, and some (such 
as aborigines) are found only in the plural. 

Some foreign words have both retained their 
foreign plurals and acquired English plurals. In 
such cases the foreign plurals are sometimes re- 
served for use in technical, learned, or devout lan- 
guage. In mathematics and physics, for instance, 
we speak of foci, indices, vertices, and vortices, and 
in solemn phrases we sometimes use the Hebrew 
plurals, cherubim and seraphim, of seraph and 
chemib} Genius, meaning **a spirit," makes the 
plural genii, like the Latin noun genizcs ; in the 
sense of ^^ talent" it makes its plural in the usual 
English fashion. 

Our common title of address, Mr. (pronounced 
*' mister"), has as a plural Messi^s., an abbreviation 
for the French plural, Messieurs. Madam, from the 
French mada^ne ('*my lady"), and Mrs. have no 
plural in English, though the French abbreviation 

^ In King James's version of the Bible (see Exodus xxv. 19), and even 
now in vulgar English, we have the double plurals cheruhims and sera- 
phims^ which originated in mistaking the foreign plurals for singulars. 



58 EnglisJi Gi^ammar [chap, vii 

for the plural of madame, i.e.^ Mines., is sometimes 
used. Miss makes its plural regularly. 

45. Nouns having the Same Form in Both Numbers. — 

Some nouns expressive of number or measure, such 
as brace^ dozen, head, hiuidredzv eight, pair, yoke, are 
frequently used in a plural sense, in certain stereo- 
typed phrases, without change of form, as in '' several 
hundredweight of iron," ^^ thrtt yoke of oxen," ''so 
many head of cattle or sail of the fleet," '' how many 
dozen did he take } " When these nouns are not 
used in such set phrases, expressing number or 
measure, they form their plurals regularly, as in 
"all sails were set." Certain names of animals, 
such as eod, deer, grouse, salmon, troitt, are the same 
in both singular and plural.^ Fish has as plurals 
both fish diTidi fishes : we say ''there are many fish 
in the lake," but, when we refer to individuals of 
the class fish, "the story of the swan and the 
three fishes,'' "the miracle of the loaves and the 
fishes.'' Swine is usually considered as both sin- 
gular and plural, but it is now rarely or never used 
in the singular in literary English. HeatJien, origi- 
nally an adjective, is the same in both the singular 
and the plural ; canno7i is usually treated in the same 
way, though the plural cannons is sometimes found. 

46. Nouns Singular in Form, but treated as Plural. 

— In spite of the final s, alms, eaves, and riches (from 

1 The reason for this exceptional usage is that certain such nouns as 
deer and sheep were, in Old English, the same in both the singular and 
the plural. 



CHAP. VII] Noitns : Number 59 

the French 7'ichesse) are really singular nouns. Their 
likeness to plural nouns, however, was so strong that 
they are regularly treated as plural. Another singular 
noun ending in s, sicmmons, has become recognized 
as a singular, and forms a regular plural, sinmnonses. 

47. Ifouns Plural in Form, but treated as Singular. 

— Several nouns, plural in form, such as amends, 
news, tidings, economics, mathematics, optics, pliysics, 
statics, etc., are regularly treated as singular nouns. 
Pains, in the sense of care, as in '' the great pains 
that I took with it prevents my disposing of it so 
readily," is usually treated as a singular noun. 
Means and odds may be regarded as either singular 
or plural, and wages is sometimes, especially in old- 
fashioned English, treated as a singular (as in '' the 
wages of sin is death "). Politics and athletics differ 
from the other nouns of the same ending mentioned 
above in that they are regularly treated as plurals. 
The United States, at first used as a plural noun- 
phrase, is now generally treated as singular. 

48. Nouns rarely used in the Plural. — Some names 
of diseases, such as consumption, rheumatism, diph- 
theria ; most names of metals or materials, such as 
gold, bread ; and abstract nouns in general, such as 
faith, love, — are rarely or never used in the plural, 
unless with a changed meaning. We can scarcely 
say constmiptions or golds, unless, perhaps, to mean 
different kinds of consumption or of gold. For the 
plural of abstract nouns, see § 33. 



6o EnglisJi Gramma}' [chap, vii 

49. Nouns used only in the Plural. — Nouns like 
scissors, tongs, trousers, dregs, scales, victuals, cattle, 
representing composite objects or groups, are found 
only in the plural number. 

50. Nouns that have Two Meanings in the Plural. — 

Some nouns have two plurals differing in meaning. 
Such are brother, brothers (by birth), brethre7i (by asso- 
ciation); cloth, cloths {^\qz^^ or kinds of cloth), clothes ; 
die, dies (for printing), dice (for playing). Pea has a 
regular plural peas, but there is a somewhat old- 
fashioned collective singular pease, used especially 
for the dried seeds, as in ''a handful of pease'' or 
'^pease-porridge.'' It is interesting to notice that 
pease was the original word, and did not change its 
form in the plural. As it had a plural sound, how- 
ever, it was used as a plural, and the word pea was 
manufactured to do duty as a singular.^ Penny 
has also a regular plural pennies, used strictly to 
express number, as in '^ six pennies^ and a plural 
'* pence," indicating value, as in sixpence. Shot, a 
noise, has a regular plural ; shot, a leaden ball, is the 
same in both singular and plural. 

51. Plural of Compound Nouns. — Compound nouns 
make their plurals in several ways, (i) Such words 
as spoonful, blackbird, in which the parts of the com- 
pound are so blended that the fact of composition 
has almost or quite disappeared, make regular plurals, 
spoonf7ils, blackbirds. (2) Words in which a noun is 

^ Just as, in vulgar English, the singular " Chinee" has been manu- 
factured from "Chinese," which was ignorantly taken as a plural form. 



CHAP. VII] Nouns: Nimiber 6 1 

compounded with an adverb or a prepositional phrase 
add the pkiral sign to the original noun, as lookers- 
on^ men-of-war, sons-in-law. (3) If there is no noun 
in the compound word, the inflection is put at the 
end, as in forget-me-7iots, three-per-cents, go-betweens. 
(4) In the rare compound nouns (all military or 
judicial titles of French origin), in which a noun is 
followed by an adjective, as knight-errant, major- 
general, it was formerly the custom to add the plural 
sign to the noun, as knights-errant, majors-general, 
courts-martial. It is now more usual, however, to 
treat these nouns without regard to the relative value 
of their component parts, and to add the plural sign 
at the end, as knight-errajits, major-generals, court- 
martials. (5) In several compounds in which the 
component parts are both nouns and not easily 
merged together, such as knight-templar, maii-servant, 
woman-servant, the plural sign is added to each word, 
as knights-templars, men-servants, women-servants. 
(6) It should be added that, though joitrneyman and 
similar nouns have the plurals joiirneyme7i and the 
like, such nouns as German, Norman, Mnssnlman, 
Ottoman, talisman, are not nouns compounded with 
the English word ma7t, and so form the plurals Ger- 
mans, NonnaTis, talisma7is, etc. (7) Proper names 
preceded by a title of address, as Mr. Smith, Mrs. 
Sm.it h. Miss Smith, Colonel Sjnith, are treated in 
two different ways. As the tendency of the lan- 
guage is to form plurals by adding s to the word 
or phrase, we naturally say the Mr. Smiths, the 



62 English Grammar [chap, vii 

Mrs. Smiths, the Miss Smiths, the Colonel Smiths, 
We sometimes, however, say the Messrs. Smith, the 
Colonels Smith, and we almost invariably write the 
Misses Smith. 

52. Plurals of Letters and Signs. — The plural of 
letters, signs, and figures is usually forrhed by the 
addition of 's, e.g., " p'^ and ^'s," '' +'s and — 's," 
*^8's and 9's." Sometimes, however, the apostrophe 
is omitted. The plural of names of words is usually 
formed by the addition of s merely, e.g., ''' ands and 
buts,'" though the apostrophe is sometimes inserted. 
See S 59. 

^ ^ EXERCISE 

1 . What is the plural of each of the following words ? State 
briefly and clearly the principle involved in each case. 

(i) Tahsman, Mussulman ; (2) bellows, tweezers ; (3) mathe- 
matics, news ; (4) pair, dozen, trout ; (5) stratum, crisis ; (6) ox, 
child, cow ; (7) dog, box ; (8) mother-in-law, man-of-war ; 
(9) silver, dyspepsia; (10) alms, riches; (11) cherub, bandit; 
(12) foot, tooth ; (13) valley, beauty. 

2. Of the following nouns, which are in the plural? Which 
have no plural? Give the plural forms of the remainder, and 
construct sentences illustrating their use. 

Smith, gas, wreath, thief, dwarf, oath, cloth, cross, cow,^ tooth, 
pea, brother,^ salmon, cannon, datum, cherub, species, bandit, 
apparatus, series, genius, die, eaves, gold, corn, pride, iron, 
people, spectacle, pound, wages, non-resident, knight-templar, 
chief-justice, mathematics, politics, athletics, United States, 
Caesar, pains, molasses, ashes, militia, custom,^ domino.^ 

3. What words ending in /form their plurals in ves? Make 
a statement that will cover the plural of words ending my. 

4. What is the plural of hanger-on, chief of police, secretary 
of the interior, break-down, forget-me-not. 

1 Notice that this word has two plurals. When is each used appro- 
priately? 2 'pj^e plural of this word is used in two different senses. 



CHAP. VIII] Nouns : Case G'^ 



CHAPTER VIII 

NOUNS: CASE 

53. The Four Cases. — 54. The Inflection of the Possessive 
Case. — 65. The Nominative Case. — 56. The Possessive 
Case. — 57. The Dative Case ; the Indirect Object. — 
58. The Objective Case. — 59. Summary. — 60. How to parse 
a Noun. — 61. Other Parts of Speech as Nouns. — 62. Noun- 
Phrases AND Noun-Clauses. 

53. The Four Cases. — We have seen that nouns 
are sometimes inflected to express differences in 
gender, and usually inflected to express differences 
in number. There is still a third kind of noun 
inflection in English, — that by which we express 
differences in case. In Old English nouns and pro- 
nouns were said to be in any one of four cases, 
the nominative, the possessive, the dative, or the 
objective, according as they showed by their form 
that they played one part or another in the sentence. 
These four parts which nouns could play were (i) 
that of the subject of a verb, (2) that of indicating 
ownership, (3) that of the indirect object of a verb (a 
function which we shall soon describe), and (4) that 
of the object of a verb. In Old English, as in most 
European languages, these four principal but differ- 
ent relations which a noun or pronoun might bear 
to other words were sometimes expressed by four 
different forms of the noun or pronoun, and, as a 



64 EnglisJi Grammar [chap, viii 

noun or a pronoun may be either in the singular 
or the plural number, the theory of the language 
may be said to have allowed it to appear in eight 
different forms. Even in Old English nouns never 
appeared in so great a diversity of forms, and in 
Modern English, which has lost many -Of the older 
inflections, no noun appears in more than four forms. 
The theory or logical principle of the language re- 
mains unchanged, however, and we still speak of a 
noun as having four cases in each number. A noun 
is said to be in the nominative case when it is the 
subject of a verb, in the dative case when it is the 
indirect object of a verb, in the objective case when 
it is the direct object of a verb, and in the possessive 
case when it denotes possession, ownership, or a 
similar relation. In such a sentence as ^'the em- 
ployer paid the child his parent's salary," all four 
cases are represented in the singular number. Em- 
ployer is in the nominative case because it is the 
subject of the Ytrh paid ; child is in the dative case 
because it is the indirect object of the verb; salary 
is in the objective case because it is the direct object 
of the verb ; and parent's is in the possessive case 
because it expresses ownership. In the sentence, 
'*the employers paid the children their parents' 
salaries," the same nouns are in precisely the same 
cases but in the plural number. 

54. The Inflection of the Possessive Case. — In cer- 
tain pronouns, as we shall see in the next chapter, 



CHAP. VIII] Nouns: Case 65 

the nominative case — / or zve, for example — is dif- 
ferent in form from the objective case {ine. or us). 
In all nouns, however, the only case that is denoted 
by a separate form is the possessive. The possessive 
singular is formed by adding s preceded by an apos- 
trophe to the nominative singular ; ^ thus, boy, boys. 
The apostrophe denotes that a letter is here omitted 
in spelling, for the Old English possessive added 
es to the nominative singular. When the singular 
ends already in i* or a hissing sound, we do not 
usually change the form of the possessive {priucesSy 
princess s ; topaz, topaz s\ but we pronounce the ter- 
mination 's as if it were ez. Sometimes, however, 
when the singular ends in a hissing sound, we omit 
the s, especially if the next word also begins with a 
hissing sound, adding as the sign of the possessive 
only the apostrophe, as in ''for Jesns' sake," ''for 
conscience sake," "for old acquaintance' sake." It 
would be rare to find in the three phrases just men- 
tioned any other form of the possessive than that 
given, but it is not uncommon to see '' Dickens' 
novels," ''Keats' poems," ''Socrates' life," as well as 
" Dickens s novels," " Keats' s poems," etc. In col- 
loquial English the latter forms are almost always 
followed in pronunciation. 

A compound noun forms the possessive singular 
by adding ' s at the end, as man-servant's, man-of- 
war's, niajor-generaV s. Names of firms or associa- 

1 This s is pronounced as z. except in the circumstances mentioned 
in the note to § 41. 



66 English Grammar [chap, vm 

tions and groups of nouns follow the same prin- 
ciple, e.g.^ "Park ajid Tilford's coffee," '' Washing- 
ton and Lee University's officers," "the Society for 
the Advance7ne7it of Christian Knozvledges publica- 
tions," ''the governor of Kentttcky s policy." But 
it would be less awkward, in many sueh cases, to 
represent the same relation by of, eg., ''the officers of 
Washington and Lee University," " the publications 
of the Society for the Advancement of Christian 
Knowledge," "the policy of the governor of Ken- 
tucky." In the same way, it is better to say "the 
bridle of Lucy, the gray mare," than " Lucy the gray 
mare's bridle," though the latter form is correct, in 
accordance with our custom of placing the sign of 
the possessive, if possible, at the end of a noun or 
of a group of words that are taken together as a 
noun. 

The possessive plural is formed by adding 's to 
the regular plural form if that does not end in s, as 
"men, men s ; geese, geese s ; if the plural ends in s, 
the possessive adds only the apostrophe, and does 
not differ in pronunciation from the regular plural 
form, as dogs, dogs'. 

EXERCISE 

Turn into possessives the nouns used with of in 
the following phrases : 

A journey of an hour and three-quarters, the salary of the 
President of the United States, a portrait of Mr. Howells, an 
adventure of the three princes, the voyage of the three prin- 
cesses, the narrative of the princess. 



CHAP. VIII] Nouns : Case 67 

55. The Ifommative Case. — (i) A noun that is the 
subject of a verb is said to be in the nominative case. 
The same term is also used for nouns employed in 
somewhat different ways. (2) In such a sentence as 
*' O Cromwell, Cromwell ! Had I but served my God 
with half the zeal I served my king! " we say that 
Cromwell is a nominative of address, for, though 
it is not the subject of a verb, its use is certainly 
more like that of a subject than that of an object, an 
indirect object, or a possessive. The nominative of 
address is sometimes known as the vocative case (lit- 
erally, case used in calling or speaking), and was in 
Latin and Greek represented by a separate inflec- 
tional form. (3) In such sentences as ^' Henry became 
king in 1509," '' Henry was king from 1509 to 1547," 
the verbs became and was are of a peculiar kind, 
known as copulas (link-words) or verbs of incom- 
plete predication. They do not take objects, and 
they serve merely to join a preceding noun and a 
following noun by expressing identity or some very 
similar relation. See § 90. A noun following is 
or becomes, therefore, is identical in case with the 
preceding noun, and differs from it only in that it 
forms an essential part of the predicate. King in 
both the sentences given above is called a predicate 
nominative. (4) In such a sentence as *^ Washing- 
ton, the first president of the United States, was 
born on the twenty-second of February," Wash- 
ington, as the subject of the verb ivas bo7m, is 
said to be in the nominative case. President is the 



68 E7iglisJi Grammar [chap, vm 

chief noun of an explanatory or equivalent phrase. 
It is parallel, as it were, in its use and meaning, 
to WasJiiiigton, and is called a nominative in ap- 
position (that is, a nominative by virtue of its place 
beside another nominative). In the sentence, '' Cap- 
tain Kidd, the famous pirate, buccaneer, aad cutthroat, 
was finally captured and hanged," //r^/^, buccaneer, 
and cictthroat are nouns in the nominative case, in 
apposition with Kidd. (5) In" such constructions as 
^'The work being completed, we went away," or, 
^'Jack following close beside me, I ran swiftly for- 
ward," woi'k and Jack are called absolute nomina- 
tives, simply because they. do not play the part of any 
other case. They are not objects, they do not indi- 
cate possession, and so, as we must account for them 
in some way, we assign them to the nominative case 
in the same way that we do nouns used in address. 
See above (2). As a matter of fact, zvork and Jack 
in these constructions would in Old English have 
been datives, but all signs of the use of the dative of 
nouns in such a way have long ago disappeared, and 
we are justified in classifying such uses in the man- 
ner most in keeping with the general principles of 
the modern language. See, however, § 127, note i. 

EXERCISE 

Find the nouns in the nominative in the exercises f ol- 
lowing§§ 14, 15, 18, 19, 25, and 33. Tell the use of each. 

56. The Possessive Case. — The possessive case is 
so called because its most common office is to indicate 



CHAP. VIII] Noitns : Case 69 

the owner or possessor, as in ''John's hat." It may 
also be used in a variety of ways to express the per- 
son or thing to be regarded as directly concerned 
with the following noun, as in '' Scotf s poems," 
'' Ccesar s A^2,\h^'\ '^the sinnmer's heat." Sometimes 
it is used with an objective force, as in '^the Czar's 
assassination," where the meaning is obviously that 
the Czar was assassinated, not that he assassinated 
some one (compare ''Mary Qiceeii of Scots murders," 
where the meaning is the reverse). Sometimes the 
possessive is used without a noun to modify it, as 
in "he went to the baker s,'' ''he caught sight of St. 
Marys,'' where shop and church are understood. 
These different uses, so familiar to us in speech and 
writing, it is not necessary to analyze closely here. 
The student's attention should, however, be called 
to two things: (i) that the possessive case is 
almost always the exact equivalent of the same 
noun preceded by of, e.g., "Johi's hat" is equiva- 
lent to ''the hat of John" ; (2) that we some- 
times use both forms of expression together, as 
a sort of double possessive. We may say, for 
example, "a cousin of John's," "a house of Mr. 
SmWis" "these sermons of Dr, Brooks's." It is 
plain that we could not, in accordance with the 
idiom of our language, say " a John's cousin," 
"these Dr. Brooks's sermons," and historical gram- 
mar makes it evident that the possessive, in such 
instances, is not to be regarded as modifying a 
noun omitted or understood, but rather as a 



JO English Gramma7' [chap, viii 

peculiar usage, due to causes not easily to be ex- 
plained here.^ 

EXERCISE 

State the case of the italicized nouns, mentioning 
any peculiarities in their use : 

I. Have Harry go straight to the doctor's^ shopping at the 
apothecary'' s on the way back. 2. My dear sir^ you can scarcely 
expect me, after a day and a halfs ride, to undertake another 
expedition at a 7jiome7ifs notice. 3. You rascal^ I will tell your 
father. 4. Sword in hand, the nieil steadily advance. 5. Any 
friend of John^s is welcome here. 6. Jefferson, Washington' s 
secretary of state, was a popular idol, 7. His wife was called'^ 
Lady Washiiigton. 8. I^ have just read a novel of Scott^s^ and 
one oi Mr. Howells^s. 

57. The Dative Case ; the Indirect Object. — In such 
a sentence as *^ I gave John the book," it is evident 
that / is the subject, gave the verb or predicate, and 
book the object of the verb. But what is John? It 
is not strictly the object of the verb, and yet it is 
certainly not the subject. In Old or Middle Eng- 
lish a different form of the noun would have been 
used, distinguishing the John in " I gave John a 
book" from the John in ^* I struck John." In 
Modern English we use John in both instances, but 
we see that the word plays in each instance a dif- 
ferent part. When it is used in the former sense 
C' I gave Johji the book"), we call it the indirect 
object. The indirect object is, as a rule, easily recog- 
nized, for whenever a noun or pronoun is used in 

^ See Kellner's Historical Outlines of E^iglish Syntax (1892), p. 113. 

2 Was called has the same force as the verbs mentioned in § 55, 3. 

3 The best term for this idiom is the double possessive with of 



CHAP. VIII] Nouns: Case yi 

that way we may almost invariably prefix to or for 
to it without altering the sense ; that is to say, '' I 
gave John tjie book " is practically the same as '^ I 
gave to John the book," or *' I gave the book to 
John." *' I bought him a hat" is practically the 
same as '^ I bought a hat for him." 

The indirect object of a verb is said to be in the 
dative case (Latin da^r, to give), that is, the case 
representing the person to whom something is given. 
It should be borne in mind that a noun is said to 
be in the dative case only when it expresses the 
relation described without the aid of a preposition. 
In such a sentence as ^' I gave a book to ]ohT\,'" Jolm 
is not in the dative, but in the objective case, as will 
be seen in the following section.^ 

EXERCISE 

Point out the indirect objects in the following 
sentences : 

I. You can do your friends a great favor by acting as they 
wish. 2. I saved my father considerable trouble in this instance. 
3. I was forced to refuse my correspondent his request. 4. He 
gave the questioner a surly answer. 5. My father left me an 
ample fortune. 6. I will send my friend his books. 7. Forgive 
us our debts as we forgive our debtors. 8. He brought me the 
book I wanted. 9. I taught my cousin French. 10. The teacher 
asked the pupils several questions. 11. Tell your friends what 
has happened. 12. If you can't come write us a letter. 13. He 
lent his friends money, and gave his relatives presents ; but he 
owed his tailor a considerable amount. 14. He played me a 
trick. 15. I allow my son a dollar a week for pocket-money. 
16. I envy him his good fortune. 

1 A noun may also be in the dative case by apposition. See sen- 
tence 20 in the exercise following § 60. 



72 English Grammar . [chap, vin 

58. The Objective Case. —The objective case serves 
a variety of purposes, (i) It indicates the direct 
object of a verb. (2) In such a sentence as *^ there 
he saw Napoleon, the great general," Napoleon is 
in the objective case, the object of the verb saw, 
and general, by virtue of the fact that il; is a noun 
explanatory or descriptive of Napoleo7i, is said to 
be in the objective case, in apposition with Napo- 
leo7i. Compare § 55, 4. (3) In the sentence, ''the 
people made Henry king," the verb made is fol- 
lowed by the direct object king, and by another 
noun, which completes the idea of the verb by 
showing what it was that the people made Henry, 
much as if the sentence had read, ''the people 
crozvned (or kinged^ Henry." The second noun in 
this construction is usually called an objective com- 
plement {i,e., "completing" word). (3) In such 
phrases as "in the city," "of the city," "through the 
city," "at the city," we say that city is in the objec- 
tive case, with the preposition in, of, tJirough, or at. 
In Old English prepositions were followed by the 
dative case as well as by the objective. In Modern 
English, however, the dative case has retained only 
the functions described in the last section, and we are 
accustomed to regard all nouns used with preposi- 
tions in phrases like those given above, as in the 
objective case.^ 

^ It should be noticed that such nouns are not strictly the objects 
of a preposition, for a preposition merely indicates a relation and 
does not express action, but in the objective case with a preposi- 
tion. 



CHAP, viii] Nouns : Case 73 

Two other uses of the objective must be briefly 
described. (4) A verb may take, not a direct, but 
a cognate object, i.e., one that is ''related" to the 
verb in meaning, e.g., '' he sleeps the sleep of the 
just," ''I ran ai race'' Here the itahcized words 
are not real objects of the actions described by the 
verb, but a sort of expansion of the verbs. (5) Akin 
to this usage is that by which an objective is em- 
ployed with the force of an adverb, limiting the 
meaning of a verb, adjective, or other adverb, e.g., 
*'he came this moriiing,'' ''it is 2^ foot long."^ See 
§ 134- 

59. Summary. — Nominatives are of five sorts : 
(i) Nominative as subject of a verb; (2) predicate 
nominative ; (3) nominative in apposition ; (4) nomi- 
native of address; (5) absolute nominative. Posses- 
sives are of two sorts: (i) possessive as modifying 
a noun ; ^ (2) possessive in apposition.^ Datives are 

1 It is important that the pupil should understand that the force of 
the dative and objective, in all their uses, is really adverbial; that is, 
they always limit the action of the verb. Thus, in '■^Monday after 
dinner I gave Joh7i his lesson^^'' the broad act of giving is narrowed by 
the statement of the thing given (direct object), the person to whom it 
was given (dative), the time at which it was given (adverbial objective). 
It is further limited by being brought into the relation with dingier that 
is indicated by the preposition after. 

2 A possessive has the force of an adjective (see § 15). 

^ This construction is rare. When the two nouns stand side by 
side, the possessive sign is usually added only to the latter. Compare 
*•' Isaac brought her to his mother Sarah'' s tent" (^Ge^iesis xxiv. 67), 
and, for the contrary usage, ^^ Othello's pleasure, our noble and valiant 
general.''^ As a rule, these awkward expressions are avoided by using 
of, e.g., " the tent of his mother, Sarah.^^ 



74 English Graimnar [chap, viii 

of two sorts : (i) dative as indirect object; (2) dative 
in apposition. Objectives are of five sorts: (i) ob- 
jective as direct object; (2) objective complement; 
(3) objective in apposition; (4) cognate objective; 
(5) adverbial objective. 

60. How to Parse a Noun. — We parse a noun 
when we state its kind {i.e., whether it is common 
or proper ^), its gender, its number, and its case, 
making clear its relation to other words in the sen- 
tence. In the sentence, ''during his master's absence 
the dog broke loose,^' we should parse the nouns as 
follows : master s is a cornmon noun, masculine gen- 
der, singular number, possessive case, modifying 
absence ; absence is a common noun, neuter gender, 
singular number, objective case, with the preposition 
during; dog is a common noun, common gender, 
singular number, nominative case, subject of broke. 

EXERCISE 

I. Parse the nouns in the following sentences : 

I. Steele had known Addison from childhood. 2. "Triflers,'" 
shouted the colonel, ^^ silence!'' 3. The unfortunate soldier 
was declared a traitor to his country and his flag. 4. The only 
son of the deceased, Edgar, the Master of Ravenswood, a youth 
of about twenty years, instantly resented the insult. 5. Hector, 
the Trojan champion, was slain by Achilles, the noblest Grecian 
warrior. 6. In the forefront — there being no apparent danger 
— he descried the cowardly Peter. 7. A man in priestly robes 
led by the hand the orphan child, a timid boy of ten years. 

1 See § 31. It is recommended that pupils be not encouraged 
regularly to distinguish between abstract and concrete nouns. 



I 



CHAP, viii] Nouns : Case 75 

8. The crowd gave the soldiers three cheers. 9. By his wil- 
fulness he made hrs error a sin. his mistake a crime. 10. The 
commander-in-chief, a short, powerful man, sat calmly on his 
horse, a tall bay mare. 11. The dog leading the way, the little 
band reached at last a place of safety. 12. The strangest ride 
that ever sped was Ireson's out of Marblehead. 13. '-Tell 
Colonel Ashton,'' said Ravensvvood, ^' I shall be found at Wolfs 
Crag." 14. My son, I command you; my friend, I entreat you. 
15. At St. Peter's the duke was made a king; the king, an 
emperor. 16. Only the steersman seemed to keep genuine and 
unornamented the costume of his race , the white linen leggings, 
the quilted cuirass, the bears far cloak. 17. At the gunsmith's 
the repairs were soon completed. 18. The fugitives were re- 
ceived by the crowd, a confused mass of monks and populace. 
19. The dying man left his son a handsome fortune, the fruit of 
years of toil and self-denial. 20. The child handed the beggar, 
a mass of rags and dirt, a bunch of spring flowers. 21 . A friend 
of his fathers gave the poor boy advice and help. 22. At last 
he was elected president of the company, the almost irresponsible 
manager of enormous interests. 23. That tedious task over, the 
laborers paused to rest. 24. I make Caleb my executor. 25. Be 
patient, gentlemen. 26. That is a question, madam, which a 
father has a right to ask. 27. I am an armed man, a desperate 
man, and I will not die without ample vengeance. 28. The 
master became a servant, the servant a master. 29. The seal 
was Orestes', and so Vs^as the handwriting. 30. The flirniture of 
the bishop's room did not differ from that of the artisan's. 
31. The soldiers gathered together their plunder, — the money, 
jewels, and treasures which the poor inhabitants had accumulated 
during generations. 32. The policeman found the child his hat 
and started him homeward, ^ili- He foolishly lent the gambler, 
a ruined and reckless man, almost his whole stock of ready 
money. 34. A staif-officer of the general's galloped up at this 
juncture. 35. The boy became a skilled workman, the best 
blacksmith in the county. 36. He forced his way to the gate, 
the yelling crowd scattering behind him. 37. The robber had 
lived a life of crime. 38. Terrace above terrace, the hills 
stretched upward. 39. All loose her negligent attire, all loose 
her golden hair, hung Margaret o'er her slaughter'd sire. 



76 English Grammar [chap, viii 

40. Hundreds of feet below, the waves dashed wildly. 41. Any 
way, I will do it. 42. You are the color of chalk! ^ 43. Mary is 
just my age. 44. I will do my best. 45. I fear that you will 
get the worst of it- 

61. Other Parts of Speech as Nouns. — As was pointed 
out in § 15, words that are usually adjegfives some- 
times occur as nouns, e,g.^ **the good and the greats 
The same is, more rarely, true of adverbs, e.g., ''the 
ins and otitSy' ''the whys and z-vhereforeSy' "the ayes 
have it." Any word or expression may become a 
noun when quoted, e.g., "he shouted 'help'!"; "I 
will hear no more *of your 'ands' and 'buts'"; 
"there's no such word as 'fail.' " 

62. Noun-Phrases and Noun-Clauses. — A phrase may 
be used as (i) the subject of a verb, e.g., ''to enter 
is death" ; as (2) the object of a verb, "I choose to 
go'''^\ and as (3) the predicate nominative, " his plan 
was to proceed'^ at once." A clause may be used as 
(i) the subject of a verb ; as (2) the object of a verb ; 
and as (3) in the objective case with a preposition; 
e.g., ''that the stage arrived (subject) proves that he 
is i7i safety^ (object)" ; " I went straight to zvJiere he 
zvas sitting (objective case with a preposition)."^ 
Phrases and clauses used in these ways are equiva- 
lent to nouns, and may be called noun-phrases and 

^ Color may be accounted for as predicate nominative, or as objec- 
tive, the preposition of being omitted. Cf. the next sentence. 
2 The construction is the same as in *' I choose an apple.^'' 
^ The construction is the same as in " his plan was 2. failure.^'' 
* The construction is the same as in " his arrival proves his safety.^'' 
^ The construction is the same as in " I went straight to John.'''' 



CHAP. VIII] Nouns : Case jy 

noun-clauses. Phrases and clauses may also be used, 
as the equivalents of nouns, in other constructions, 
particularly as complements and as adverbial objec- 
tives, but the discussion of these points is reserved 
for another chapter.^ 

EXERCISE 

What are the subjects and objects of the italicized 
verbs in the following sentences ? Mention any 
clauses or phrases in apposition or used with the 
force of predicate nominatives. 

I . That the relation between the imperial country and a colo- 
nial dependency was radically false caftnot be repeated too often. 
2. To induce them to contribute to the common defence was a 
difficult task. 3. The fact remains that he and his soldiers were 
there at England's cost to defend her American children against 
the French and their Indian allies. 4. If only the mother 
country could have said to the child, ^^I have secured you the 
dominion of the new world ; follow henceforth your destiny." 

1 See §§ 116-119 and 184. 



78 English Grammar [chap, ix 



CHAPTER IX 

PRONOUNS 



^ 



63. Kinds of Pronouns. — 64. Personal Pronouns. — 65. Per- 
sonal Pronouns of the Second Person. — 66. Personal 
Pronouns of the Third Person. — 67. The Possessive Case 
OF the Personal Pronouns. — 68. The Dative and Objective 
Cases of the Personal Pronouns. — 69. Compound Personal 
Pronouns. — 70. Interrogative Pronouns. — 71. Relative 
Pronouns. — 73. Indefinite Relative Pronouns. — 73. As and 
But AS Relative Pronouns. — 74. Distinction between In- 
terrogative Pronouns in Indirect Questions and Relative 
Pronouns. — 75. Demonstrative Pronouns. — 76. Adjective 
Pronouns. — 77. Indefinite Pronouns. 

63. Kinds of Pronouns. — As we have seen (§ i6), 
pronouns are reference-words which refer to persons 
or things without naming them. Pronouns may be 
conveniently classed under six heads : as personal, 
interrogative, relative, demonstrative, adjective, and 
indefinite. We shall now discuss in turn each of 
these classes. 

64. Personal Pronouns. — The pronouns (i) /, 
(2) thoii^ (3) he, she, and it, with their various inflec- 
tional forms, are called the personal pronouns, be- 
cause they refer (i) to a person speaking, (2) to a 
person spoken to, (3) to a person or thing spoken* of. 
Pronouns referring to a person speaking are said to 
be of the fij^st person ; those referring to a person 
spoken to, of the second person ; those referring to a 



CHAP. IX] Pronouns 79 

person or thing spoken of, of the thii^d person. The 
personal pronouns ^re mflected as follows : 





First Person. 


Second 


Person. 




Singular. 


Plural. 


Siytgular. 


Plural. 


Noni. 


I 


we 


thou 


ye, you 


Pass. 


my, mine 


our, ours 


thy, thine 


your, yours 


Obj. 


me 


us 

Third 

Singular. 


thee 
Person. 


you 

Plural. 




Masculine. 


Feminine. 


Neuter. 


All Genders. 


iVojn . 


he 


she 


it 


they 


Pass. 


his 


her, hers 


its 


their, theirs 


Obj. 


him 


her 


it 


them 



65. Personal Pronouns of the Second Person. — Pro- 
nouns of the second person present several peculi- 
arities. The singular form has almost entirely gone 
out of use, surviving now only in prayer to the Deity, 
in poetry or impassioned prose, and, not uncommonly, 
in the speech and writing of members of the Society 
of Friends or Quakers . In prayer the use of the 
singular pronoun produces an effect of solemnity, 
which would be in great measure destroyed by the 
employment of the colloquial yon. The custom is 
based upon the usage of King James's version of the 
Bible, which was made at a time when the singular 
pronoun had not gone out of use in addressing a 
single person. In poetry, and in impassioned prose, 
the singular pronoun produces, as a rule, a certain 
effect of solemnity, as in prayer. Ye^ in the plural, 
has the same effect. At first, when you was applied 
to a single person, it was regarded as a polite form 



8o English Grammar [chap, ix 

of expression, to be employed chiefly by inferiors in 
addressing their superiors. The use of the singular 
pronoun by Quakers, now largely given up, except 
in intimate conversation, was based on the conviction 
that the use of the plural pronoun for such a purpose 
made an unnatural and un-Christian distfnction be- 
tween persons. It is interesting to notice that 
Quakers now use thee as the nominative case, as in 
^^ thee walk too fast." The change is the same as 
that which has taken place in you^ which was at first 
an objective {cf. '' I have piped unto yotc andj/e have 
not danced"), and has now come to be both nomi- 
native and objective. In the common speech of 
to-day a trace of this old use of j/e remains in the 
pronunciation of ''how do you do " as ''how d'i do," 
that is, "how d'ye do." 

Yo2^ has sometimes an indefinite force, as in "the 
temple stands on your left as yozi cross the river," 
where yoti^ may refer, not to a particular person, but 
to any person who might be conceived of as present 
at the spot mentioned. 

66. Personal Pronouns of the Third Person. — Here 

certain peculiarities of form and usage must also be 
noted. The pronouns of the third person (he^ she, 
it) distinguish the gender of the person or thing 
spoken of. This distinction is not necessary in the 
pronouns of the first and second persons, which are 
used almost entirely in conversation, where the sex of 
the speakers is recognized. In speaking of persons 



CHAP. IX] Pronoitns 8 1 

or things, however, such a distinction is necessary 
to prevent ambiguity or obscurity. He and slie may 
be used in referring to personified objects or ideas 
(see § 39), as well as to persons. They are also fre- 
quently used in speaking of animals. On the other 
hand, it is sometimes used in referring to a child, 
who is thus regarded as a thing. They is often used 
indefinitely, referring to people in general, as in '' they 
say so-and-so." 

The possessive its is of comparatively recent ori- 
gin. The old form was Jiis, from the nominative hit. 
It was used until the sixteenth century and then died 
out gradually. In King James's version of the Bible 
and in Shakspere we still find his employed as a 
possessive neuter pronoun : " And the earth brought 
forth grass, and herb yielding seed after Jiis kind " 
(Genesis i. 12); ''how far that little candle throws 
his beams" {Merchant of Venice^ v. i). 

A curious survival of an old usage is to be 
seen in our colloquial pronunciation of tliein as 'em 
('' I threw 'em away "). In literary English of the 
seventeenth and eighteenth centuries it is not uncom- 
mon to find 'em for tJiem. 'E^n, however, is not an 
abbreviation of them^ but a survival of the pronuncia- 
tion of the Old English hem, which was replaced in 
very early times by them, a form of a somewhat dif- 
ferent origin. 

We must also notice several peculiar uses of the 
neuter pronoun it. It may refer to a thing, as in '' I 
took it away," or to a whole group of words, as in 



82 English G^'ammar [chap, ix 

" I had heard that he was not truthful, but I did not 
beheve W {i.e., that he was not truthful). // is also 
used in three less obvious ways : 

1. // may be the grain7natical, as distinguished 
from the logical y subject of a verb, as in "// is clear 
that he is not a truthful man." Here tht sense is : 
''That he is not a truthful man is clear." Logically, 
''that he is not a truthful man" is the subject of the 
verb. Gramrhatically, it, referring to the following 
group of words, is the subject of the v.erb. 

2. // is used as the subject of imperson'al verbs, as 
in "// rains," " it snows," where it does not refer to 
any definite thing. See § 91. 

3. It is sometimes used as a sort of indefinite 
object, as in the colloquial, "I gave it to him" {i.e., 
1 treated him roughly), " I footed it across the state," 
" I won't, and that's an end of it.'' 

EXERCISE 

Comment on any peculiarities in the use of the 
pronouns in the following sentences : 

I . A small schooner lay at anchor, with her broadside toward 
the shore. 2. Mid the dark rocks that watch his bed glitters 
the mighty river. 3. The child crept to its mother. 4. The 
dog knew his master's step. 5. Once, in a sea fight, 'gainst the 
count his galleys I did some service.^ 6. I will send thee a 

1 Twelfth Nighty Act iii, sc. 3. Compare " for Jesus Christ his sake," 
in the ritual of the Church of England, and the familiar inscription 
"John Smith his book." For some centuries it was supposed that the 
'5 of the possessive was an abbreviation of his^ and his was often written 
instead of the sign of the possessive. The pupil will be interested in 
reading No. 135 of the Spectator and noticing Addison's comments on 
what he supposed to be the vulgar use of ^s for his. 



CHAP. IX] Pronoims 83 

copy of my little book in a few days ; there are some things in it 
that I think thee will like. I wish thee w^ould write out for the 
Atlantic some of the good things thee know of the Shoals.^ 
7. Ye have feared the sword; and I will bring the sword upon 
you. 2 8. And he [Bezaleel] made the candlestick of pure gold : 
of beaten w^ork made he the candlestick ; his shaft, and his branch, 
his bowls, his knops, and his flowers, were of the same.^ 9. He 
hath lost his fellows and strays about to find 'em.* 10. It ^ was he 
who suggested it. 11. It is needless to recount the details of the 
quarrel. 12. We made the ascent w^hile it was raining hardest. 



67. The Possessive Case of the Personal Pronouns. — 

The possessive case of a personal pronoun {e.g,^ '' Iiis 
hat, '^ Jier book") is frequently treated as an adjec- 
tive. Its force is certainly that of an adjective, but it 
does not differ in that respect from the possessive 
case of a noun, and we find it on the whole more 
convenient, in this volume, not to classify the posses- 
sive cases of the personal pronouns as adjectives. 

Each of the personal pronouns, except Jie and //, 
has two possessives. See § 64. The forms iny^ thy^ 
her^ oic7'^ yoitr^ tlieh^ are used only when preceding the 
noun they qualify, as in ''my life," ''your faith." 
The forms mine^ tJiine^ hers,^ 07i7's, yours, theirs, are 
commonly used after the noun, as in ^^the dog is 
mme,'' ''that dog of mine,'' ''sister mine'' In older 
English mine and thine were often used before a 
vowel sound, instead of my and tJiy, and the usage 

1 From a letter of J. G. Whittier's to Ceha Thaxter. 

'^ Ezekiel x\, 8. ^Exodus xxxvii. 17. '^ Tempest^ Act i, sc. 2. 

^ Notice that it is the grammatical subject; uOio, etc., is the logical 
subject. 

^ In vulgar English we find hern^ hisn^ theirii, etc., forms analogous 
to mine. 



§4 English Grammar [chap, ix 

is still not uncommon in. poetry: e.g., ^^ drink to me 
only with tJii7ie eyes." Double possessives occur fre- 
quently with pronouns, as well as with nouns (see 
§ 56), e.g.y ''a horse of his,'' ''a neighbor of mine,'' 
''' a friend of tlieirs.'' 

68. The Dative and Objective Cases of the Personal 
Pronouns. — As in nouns, so in pronouns, the same 
forms do duty for both the dative and the objective.^ 
The cases must be recognized by their uses, which 
are precisely the same as with nouns. See §§ 55-59. 
It is interesting to notice that in the verbs methinks 
and meseems (literally, [it to] me seems), me is in 
the dative case. Methinks is precisely equivalent in 
meaning to meseems, for thinks is here from an Old 
English verb meaning '^to seem." 

69. Compound Personal Pronouns. — To the personal 
pronouns my, our, thy, yoitr, him, lier, it, and them 
the words self (singular) and selves (plural) may be 
added, forming the compound personal pronouns my- 
self, thyself, ourselves, etc. These are used in two 
ways : 

I. With a noun or a personal pronoun, for emphasis, 
as in ''the king himself commanded it," ''I myself 
saw it," where himself ^xvdi myself are in the nomina- 
tive case, in apposition with king and /. Sometimes 
myself and ourselves (and, rarely, other compound 
personal pronouns) are used without an accompanying 

1 These forms are, however, derived from the old dative forms of 
the pronouns, not from the objective. 



CHAP. IX] Pronouns 85 

noun or personal pronoun, as in ^^the general and 
myself \NQ.\'t among the first arrivals," ''our ancestors 
and oiu'selves have both fought for freedom." In 
some such instances the compound personal pronouns 
are used for emphasis ; in others they are nearly or 
quite equivalent to personal pronouns. 

2. Without an accompanying noun or pronoun, with 
a reflexive sense, that is, representing a person or 
thing as acted upon by himself or itself, as in '' he 
only succeeded in wounding himself,'" ''I have no 
confidence in myself Sometimes, especially in 
poetry, the simple personal pronouns are used for the 
same purpose, as in ''now I lay me down to sleep," 
" he looked about him,'' 

EXERCISE 

[In parsing a personal pronoun we state (i) of what person it 
is, (2) to what word or group of words it refers, (3) what is its 
gender (if of the third person), (4) its number, and (5) its case, 
making clear its relation to other words in the same sentence. 
Thus, in '' yoic shall not lord // over ;;/^," yon is a personal 
pronoun of the second person, referring to a person or persons 
not named, plural number, nominative case, subject of the verb 
shall lord. It is a personal pronoun of the third person, used 
indefinitely, without direct reference, neuter gender, singular 
number, objective case, object of the verb shall lo?^d. In parsing 
a compound personal pronoun, we follow the same method, 
stating in addition whether its use is emphatic or reflexive.] 

I. Parse (i) the personal pronouns, (2) the nouns 
in the following sentences : 

I. " Thou art late, son," said the abbot. 2. Tell me all about 
it. 3. You insolent provincial slave, you will carry those 
liberties of yours too far. 4. Whether you will comply with his 



86 English Granitnar [chap, ix 

reasonable little request depends of course on yourself. 5. I owe 
him a large sum. 6. If he wants us, he must come himself and 
lead us. 7. Give them their due. 8. Send me it at once. 9. If 
the gods demand a sacrifice, here am I. 10. It is mine. 11. You 
shall do it yourself. 12. I will force myself to do it. 13. Mine 
eyes shall see the glory of the coming of the Lord. 14. Thy rod 
and thy staff they comfort me. 15. It hailed tl>e ships, and 
cried, "Sail on, ye mariners, the night is gone." 16. Methought 
I stood before the raging sea. 17. She early left her sleepless 
bed, the fairest maid of Teviotdale. 18. What may it be, the 
heavy sound, that moans old Branksome's turrets round .^ 
19. The flower and chivalry of Spain had sat in that council 
room, grandees who had plumed and ruffled it with the bloods 
of their day, and now it was deserted, stared at only from time 
to time by your fool of a tourist. 20. Who am I ? What is this 
Me, this poor miserable Me?^ 21. Run, run, Orlando ; carve on 
every tree, the fair, the chaste and unexpressive she.^ 22. They 
sat them down beside the stream. 23. Give every man thine 
ear, but few thy voice. 24. He had of me a chain ; at ^v^ 
o'clock I shall receive the money for the same.^ 25. I remain, 
my dear sir, yours respectfully, John Smith. 26. If you are caught, 
you must be it. 

II. Parse the personal pronouns in the exercises 
following §§ 14, 15, 18, 19, 25, and 33. 

70. Interrogative Pronouns. — The pronouns who, 
what, and zvhich are used in interrogations or ques- 
tions, and are therefore called interrogative pronouns. 
WIio has a possessive zvhose and a dative and objec- 
tive whom. What and zvhich are not inflected. WJio 

1 Carlyle. Note that me is here a noun. 

2 As You Like It, Act iii, sc. 2. 

^ Comedy of Errors^ Act iv, sc. i. Note that the same is equivalent 
to it. This usage is not uncommon in older English, and is preserved 
in present English in commercial phraseology, e.g., "Yours received 
and contents of same noted." 



CHAP. IX] Pronotcns 87 

and ivhich may be used in the singular or the pkiral ; 
wJiat, only in the singular. Who refers only to per- 
sons ; zvhat only to things ; zvhicJi refers to either 
persons or things, but differs from wlio and zvliat in 
that it implies that the answer will express a choice 
or selection among certain persons or things. '' Who 
was the murderer, and zvJiat was the instrument he 
used 1 " implies that we are in complete ignorance as 
to both facts. ''Which was the murderer and zvhich 
weapon did he use .^ " implies that two or more par- 
ticular persons are suspected of the murder, and that 
the murderer is supposed to have used one of two or 
more particular instruments in committing his crime. 
The question is zvhich of these individuals was the 
criminal and zvhich of these instruments was his in- 
strument. 

As has been stated above, zvJiom is the objective 
case of zvho, and in literary English we write, '' zvhoin 
did you see V In colloquial English, however, ''zvho 
did you see t " has long been a common usage, and 
can scarcely be regarded as incorrect. 

Whether, now obsolete, was an interrogative pro- 
noun, meaning ^^ which of the two." '' Whether is 
greater, the gold, or the temple that sanctifieth the 
gold .^ " — Matthezv xxiii. 17. 

Interrogative pronouns may be used in direct or in 
indirect questions. A direct question is in the words 
of the questioner, e.g., ''zvhat shall I do .-^ " An in- 
direct question is introduced by such statements as 
''I asked," e.g., "\ asked what I should do," ''he 



88 English Grammar [chap, ix 

enquires what he shall do." Sometimes the idea of 
asking is implied rather than expressed, as in **he 
deliberated what he should do," ''he took his friends* 
advice as to what he should do." See also § 74. 

The words who^ what, and zvhich must not be sup- 
posed to be invariably interrogative pronouns. They 
may also be relative pronouns, as we shall see in the 
next section. 

EXERCISE 

Parse the interrogative pronouns in the following 
sentences, i.e., state the number and case of each : 

I. Who is he? 2. What is he? 3. Whom do you mean? 
4. Whose dog art thou ? 5. .What is the matter? 6. What do 
you mean? 7. Which is the road? 8. Which shall I take? 
9. Whether of them twain did the will of his father? ^ 10. Who^ 
should I see there but my own brother? 11. It is so dark 
that I can't tell who is who?^ 12. Have you decided what you 
will do?^ 13. I insist upon knowing who he is. 14. I am 
anxious to know to whom you refer. 15. I know what the 
circumstances are. 16. I have not decided which I shall ride. 

71. Relative Pronouns. — Who, what, which, and 
that ^ frequently fulfil two duties : they are both ref er- 

1 MattheW'xyl. 31. 

2 Colloquial but not vulgar English. The pupil may be interested 
to notice in a concordance to Shakspere the number of instances in 
which who is used as an objective. For the reason see § 154, 2, a. 
Compare also"w//^w do men say that I am?" {^Matthew xvi. 13), 
where whom should be who, according to strict modern usage. 

2 Notice that the clause is the object of tell. 

^ What you will do is the object of decided^ or, better, the adverbial 
objective (compare the Latin accusative of specification). What is 
the object of do. 

^ That is the oldest English relative. The others were first used 
only as interrogatives. The pupil will be interested in reading Steele's 



CHAP. IX] Pronouns 89 

ence-words and connectives. In such instances they 
are called relative pronouns. The use of relative 
pronouns may be illustrated by the following sen- 
tences : (i) ''he is the man zvlw shot the bear"; 
(2) '' he stole the money which the farmer had hid- 
den " ; (3) '' this is the rat that ate the malt." In (i) 
who refers to ma7i, and connects the statements '' he 
is the man " and '' [he] shot the bear " ; in (2) which 
refers to money, and connects '' he stole the money " 
and ''the farmer had hidden [the money]"; in (3) 
that rQ,itr^ to 7'at, and connects "this is the rat" and 
"[he] ate the malt." The word, or group of words, 
to which a relative pronoun refers is called its ante- 
cedent (literally, the thing "going before"), because 
it usually precedes the pronoun. 

The four relative pronouns are used in slightly 
different ways. 

1. Who, with its possessive zvhose, and its dative 
and objective whom, is both singular and plural, and 
refers almost invariably to living beings, usually per- 
sons, sometimes animals. By a sort of personifica- 
tion, however, whose (but not who or whom) some- 
times refers to things, as in "the city whose towers 
he saw in the distance." 

2. What always refers to things, never to persons. 
(Compare the interrogative ivhat, § 70.) It is pecul- 
iar in that its antecedent is not usually expressed, 

" humble petition of who and which " in the Spectator for May 30, 
171 1 (quoted in Lounsbury, Histojy of the Efiglish Language, p. 297). 
Steele was mistaken in thinking that the upstart and the others the 
original relatives. 



90 English Grarninar [chap, ix 

e.g,y ''what I saw, I shall not tell you." What is 
here equivalent to that which, and the construction is 
the same as in '' I will not tell you that which I saw." 
When expressed, the antecedent follows the relative, 
e.g., "what I do not tell you, that you must learn 
elsewhere." • 

3. Which, with some rare exceptions, refers only 
to things. It is not inflected. 

4. That refers to either persons or things and is 
not inflected. It differs from who and which in that 
it never directly follows a preposition. We may say, 
for example, *'the man of whom I told you," or ^^the 
book zvith which I saw you," but we must say '' the 
man that I told you of,'' ''the book that I saw you 
with'' That is almost always a restrictive relative, 
that is, it introduces a group of words which limit 
the meaning of its antecedent, much as an adjective 
would. ''The friends that I loved are dead," for ex- 
ample, is equivalent to "my loved ixioxvA'^ [i.e., as dis- 
tinguished from other friends] are dead." On the 
other hand, we say " my father, whom (not tJiat^ I 
loved, is dead," because "my father" designates an 
individual and cannot be further restricted in mean- 
ing. Who and zvhich, however, are also often used 
with a restrictive force. See sentences 14, 15, 16, 
and 17 in the following exercise : ^ 

1 Some grammarians and rhetoricians insist that zvJio cannot prop- 
erly be used in a restrictive sense, as in " this course is open to 
students who can show evidence of proper preparation." The 
evidence gathered from standard writers does not support this 
view. 



CHAP. IX] Pronouns 91 

EXERCISE 

[In parsing a relative pronoun we state (i) what its antece- 
dent is, (2) its number, (3) its case. Care should be taken in 
analyzing the meaning of sentences containing relative pronouns. 
Thus, in the sentence " what I do not understand, I do not be- 
lieve,*' it takes, at first, a moment's thought to see that the 
meaning is, " I [subject] do not believe [verb] what-I-do-not- 
understand [object]." What is part of the group of words 
which is the object of the verb. In that group of words / is the 
subject, do [not] understajid is the verb, and what is the object. 
What is therefore in the objective case. Another way of pars- 
ing the sentence is to consider what equivalent to that which. 
The sense is then, ^' I do not beheve that which I do not under- 
stand." Here that is the object of believe and the antecedent of 
which^ and which is the object of do [not] understand, IVhat, 
therefore, as it combines the offices of that and which may be 
parsed as both the object of do [not] believe and of do [not] 
understand. The first method of parsing the word is, however, 
the simpler and the more natural.] 

Parse the relative pronouns. 

I. The genius of John Smith, who compelled gentlemen to 
wield the axe, saved the colony from dissolution. 2. He was 
the first of a line of adventurers, who were, like himself, gold- 
seekers. 3. Against the capitol I met a lion, who glared upon 
me.i 4. They were surrounded by a community highly com- 
mercial, whose manners their austere simphcity deemed corrupt- 
ing, which did not strictly keep the Sabbath, and into whose 
worldliness their children were in danger of being drawn. 
5. Massachusetts led the world in the institution of common 
schools, to which all citizens wxre required to contribute, and 
which all citizens were required to use. 6. In their conduct 
towards the savages with whom they came in contact, the Puri- 
tans were blameworthy. 7. This was King Philip, who, the 
colonists believed, had plotted to drive them out of the land. 

8. Persons were put to death on charges that were fantastic. 

9. He wrote on no subject that he did not enrich. 10. You 

^Julius Ccesar, Act i, sc. 3. 



92 E^iglisJi Grammar [chap, ix 

are the very man that I have been looking for. ^ 1 1 . You are 
the very man for whom I have been looking. 12. Our father 
which art in heaven."^ 13. Blessings on the man that first in- 
vented sleep. 14. The men who had volunteered stepped 
promptly forward. 15. The friends with whom he took refuge 
betrayed him. 16. The mail w^hich should have come yesterday 
has only just arrived. 17. Whom, therefore,^ ye ignorantly 
worship, him declare I unto you. 18. The tents of wickedness, 
wherein shall dwell his race who slew his brother. 19. What 
w^as worse, he told a lie. 

72. Indefinite Relative Pronouns. — Whoever, whoso, 
zvhosoever, whatever, whatso, zvhatsoever, are called 
indefinite relative pronouns, because they refer, not 
to definite persons or things, but to any possible ex- 
isting persons or things, as will be seen by the fol- 
lowing examples : '' Whoever enters, does so at his 
peril." '' Whosoever will, let him take the water of 
life freely." *'You may have whatever you wish." 
** Whatsoever he doeth shall prosper." Of these 
pronouns, however, only whoever and whatever are 
in common use. 

Whoever, zvhoso, and whosoever are inflected like 
who. Who and what (and perhaps, rarely, which^ 
may also be used with the force of indefinite relatives, 
as in ''choose whom you will," ''do what you will," 
where whom and zvhat are equivalent to zvho7never 
and zvhatever. 

1 That is the object of hav e-heen- looking-for , There is a common 
but mistaken idea that a preposition should not be used at the end of 
a sentence. The construction is a perfectly natural one, and should 
not be discouraged unless in cases where it is distinctly displeasing to 
the ear. 

2 In older English zvhich also referred to persons. 



CHAP. IX] Pronouns 93 

73. As and But as Relative Pronouns. — In sen- 
tences like '' I trust such men as trust me," as is a 
relative pronoun, with men as its antecedent, for the 
sentence is plainly equivalent to ^' I trust those men 
zvho trust me." . As is also a relative in such ex- 
pressions, in vulgar English, as ''if I do say it as 
shouldn't," i.e., ''if I say it who should not." In 
sentences like "there is no sailor ^^^^is superstitious," 
bnt may be called a relative pronoun, with a negative 
force, and with sailor as its antecedent, for the sen- 
tence is plainly equivalent to "there is not a sailor 
who is not superstitious." 

74. Distinction between Interrogative Pronouns in 
Indirect Questions and Relative Pronouns. — The pupil 
will often find it difficult to distinguish the relatives 
who, what, and which from the same words used as 
interrogative pronouns. For example, in " I failed to 
remember who he was and what he meant," who and 
what are not relatives but interrogatives, for, though 
there is no verb of asking, the questions " who was 
he ? " "what did he mean } " are clearly implied. In 
view, however, of the close historical connection 
betw^een the two classes of words, the distinction 
cannot be regarded as of importance. 

EXERCISE 

Parse the relative and interrogative pronouns in 
the following sentences : 

I. Who that once bends from his line of march in a fog can 
tell how to find it again ? 2. The mountain was a high cone 



94 English Grammar [chap, ix 

that rose a little in advance of that range which stretches for 
miles along the lake. 3. What course do you propose to fol- 
low ? 4. The thick darkness which usually precedes the 
approach of day began to disperse, and objects were seen in the 
colors with which they had been gifted by nature. 5. They 
were absorbed in deciding which route they should take. 
6. The citadel before whose gates they found themselves was 
impregnable. 7. I am on ground that I have often travelled, 
and over a large part of which I have fought. 8. Whose plan 
it was, to whom was assigned the defence, and who should have 
led the attack, it is impossible now to ascertain. 9. Such men 
as came were welcomed. 10. There are few scholars but would 
dread such an ordeal. 11. Experience taught him to amend 
what was faulty in his design. 12. What I would not [do], 
that I do. 13. He spent generously what he acquired labori- 
ously. 14. Whoever made such a statement said what is not 
true. 15. He firmly believed that whatever he had done was 
for the best. 16. Whichever course he adopted he felt that he 
must first decide what results he wished to attain. 17. Who 
are you that^ you should command me ? 18. I asked who he 
was and what he wanted. 19. What is the book ^ you gave me? 

75. Demonstrative Pronouns. — The pronouns this, 
these (plural), tJiat, those (plural), are called demon- 
stratives, because they indicate certain individuals 
or things as one might point them out by a gesture. 
The demonstrative pronouns are not inflected to de- 
note case. This and these usually refer to persons or 
things near by or immediately present to the mind ; 
that and those to persons or things further away or 
not regarded as so immediately present to the mind. 

1 Neither a relative nor an interrogative pronoun, but a conjunc- 
tion. See § 148. 

2 Notice that here, as frequently happens, the relative that (or 
ivhicJi) is omitted. Whom may also be omitted {e.g., " a man [whom] 
you met last year." Who (nominative) is rarely omitted in modern prose. 



CHAP. IX] Pronouns 95 

Compare ''do give me this,'' i.e., something which 
we have directly before us, and ''do give me that,'' 
i.e., something at a distance. The distinction in 
use, however, is sometimes very slight. Both pro- 
nouns may be used as demonstrative adjectives. 
See § 80. 

76. Adjective Pronouns. — This and that are some- 
times called adjective pronouns, because they are 
frequently used as adjectives, as in "//^/i-man," ''that 
woman." See § 80. Many other words that must 
be classed as pronouns have the same characteristic. 
Any and each, for example, may be used as adjec- 
tives, as in ''any man," "each woman"; or as pro- 
nouns, as in " I do not see any," " I must examine 
each." All such words, except the demonstratives, 
we shall call adjective pronouns when they are used 
as pronouns, and pronominal adjectives when they 
are used as adjectives. 

The chief adjective pronouns are the following : 
former, latter, each, eitlier, neither, other, another, any, 
many, some, all,fezv, much, more, most. 

Each other and one another zx^ compound adjective 
pronouns. They are reciprocal in force ; that is, 
they represent persons or things as effecting each 
other. Very often each other refers to two, and one 
a7iother to more than two persons or things. Some- 
times the two adjective pronouns which form the 
compound are used separately, as in " eacJi seized the 
other s hand." 



96 English Grammar [chap, ix 

77. Indefinite Pronouns. — There remains to be con- 
sidered a class of pronouns which cannot be used as 
adjectives, but which strongly resemble some of the 
words described in the last section. They are true 
pronouns because they are reference-words, but they 
refer to an indefinite number or quantity /of persons 
or things, or, like indefinite relatives, to any or no 
specific person or thing. They are most conveniently 
classified as indefinite pronouns; 

The chief indefinite pronouns are 07ie^ ^ any one^ any- 
body, anybody else, every one, everybody, no one, none, 
nobody, some one, somebody, somewhat, aught, and 
nanght. None of these word s is use d in the plural. ) 
Some may be used in the possessive, e.g., any one's. 
Anybody else, and similar compound indefinite pro- 
nouns, usually form the possessives anybody else's, 
everybody else's, etc., but such forms as anybody's 
else are not incorrect. What, in ^^ I tell you what,'' 
stands for somewhat? 

EXERCISE 

Parse the nouns and pronouns in the following 
sentences : 

I. Some were paid in good money, some in bad. 2. Tom 
Paine seriously demanded that any one who proposed to return 
to paper money should be punished with death. 3. Arnold had 
been one of the best of the American commanders. 4. He 
suspected, as did others, that the French had designs -on 

1 One is also a numeral adjective. See § 79. 

2 By nature the pronoun is the equivalent of a noun. It may thus 
refer to phrases or clauses. As it is, however, a mere reference word, 
it would be absurd to speak of pronoun-phrases or pronoun clauses. 



CHAP. IX] Pronouns 97 

Canada. 5. Each distrusted the other. 6. Many had learned 
to hate hhn ; all, to respect him. 7. The aim of most was high, 
but there was no one to lead them. 8. Much was still to be 
done. 9. Everybody's business is nobody's business. 10. Does 
he mistrust aught? 11. I do not purpose to meddle in anybody 
else's affairs. 12. Some were for surrender, more for an advance. 
13. The states were prohibited from laying duties on each other's 
goods. 14. Both were determined ; neither would yield. 15. The 
former is the proposition I approve. 16. This is my plan. 
17. And that is how he served me. 



H 



98 English Grammar [chap, x 



CHAPTER X 

ADJECTIVES 



/ 



78. Predicate, Attributive, and Appositive Adjectives. — 79. Ad- 
jectives OF Quality and Quantity. — 80. Demonstrative, 
Interrogative, and Relative Adjectives. — 81. Pronominal 
Adjectives. — 82. Comparison of Adjectives. — 83. Methods 
OF Comparison. — 84. Irregular Comparison. — 85. Adjec- 
tives THAT ARE NOT COMPARED. — 86. THE ARTICLES. — 

87. Nouns as Adjectives".— 88. Adjective-Phrases and Adjec- 
tive-Clauses. 

78. Predicate, Attributive, and Appositive Adjectives. 

— An adjective may limit a noun in either of two 
ways. It may form part of an assertion (or predi- 
cation) with regard to the noun, as in *' the soldier 
was brave,'' *^the boy came from the bath fresh and 
rosy,'' *^the rascal pinched tlie child black and blue." 
Such an adjective is called a predicate adjective. 
On the other hand, an adjective may merely de- 
scribe a noun, without forming part of an assertion 
with regard to it. It then serves to describe the 
noun by stating a quality or characteristic which 
belongs to it, as in ^'a brave soldier,'' ^' fresh, 7vsy 
cheeks," '^a bltie and silver suit." Such an adjective 
is called an attributive adjective. Appositive adjec- 
tives bear to their nouns a relation similar to that of 
a word in apposition, e.g., ''his brain, diUl and stupid, 
would no longer work." 



CHAP. X] Adjectives 99 

79. Adjectives of Quality and Quantity. — Almost all 
adjectives limit nouns by stating (i) qualities pos- 
sessed by them, as in '' a black hat," '' a cJiaritable 
deed," ''a violent measure"; or (2) their amount or 
quantity, as in ''little mercy," ''ten men." Adjec- 
tives expressing number are technically known as 
numeral adjectives or numerals. Numerals are of 
two sorts, cardinal and ordinal. The cardinal (/.^., 
"principal") numerals, or cardinals, merely express 
the idea of number, as in ''a tJionsand years," " fonr 
and tiventy blackbirds." The ordinals designate place 
(or *' order ") in a series, as in '' Louis the Tenth,'' ''the 
eleventh hour," ''the ten thousandth part." The 
cardinals may also be used as nouns, as in " I saw 
three or fon?','" "the crowd dispersed by twos and 
threes,'' "everything was at sixes and sevens^ 

EXERCISE 

Find the adjectives in the following passages. Are 
they attributive, predicate, or appositive } 

I. ^^ Opposite, at the further end of the boat, the little red- 
petticoated ^ figure of his daughter sat perched ^ upon the tip of 
a heap of loose stones, which served for the moment as ballast. 
The day, as has been said, was calm, but the Atlantic is never 
an absolutely passive object. Every now and then ^ a slow, sleepy 
swell would come and lift the boat upon its shoulders, up the long, 
green, watery slope and down another, setting the heap of stones 
rolling and grinding one against the other. Whenever this hap- 
pened, the little figure upon the ballast w^ould get temporarily 

^This word is in form a participle, but its force is that of an adjec- 
tive, and it may properly be classed as such. See § 98. 
2 Treat now and then as a noun-phrase. 



lOO ^ Eftglish Grammar [chap, x 

dislodged ^ from its perch, and sent rolling, now to one side, now 
to the other, according as the boat moved, or the loose freight 
shifted its position. The next moment, however, with a quick 
scrambling action, like that of some small marmoset or squirrel, 
it would have clambered up again into its former place ; its feet 
would have wedged themselves securely into a new position 
against the stones, the small mouth opening to display a row of 
white teeth with a laugh of triumphant glee at its'^own achieve- 
ment.''' 

2. One skinny arm, brown, naked, and sinewy, rose over the 
edge of the boat. 3. The girl went up to the boy as he stood 
there, astonished, furious, red to the roots of his hair with anger 
and indignant surprise. 4. The mild brown e3^es, reposeful and 
serene, had a look of peculiar contentedness. 

80. Demonstrative, Interrogative, and Relative Adjec- 
tives. — The demonstrative'words tJiis and that (§ 75), 
with their respective plurals, may be used as adjec- 
tives as well as pronouns.^ In the same way which 
and what (§ 70) may be used as interrogative adjec- 
tives, and zvhich, what {^ 71), zvhatever^ whatsoever, 
whichever, whichsoever {\ 72) may be used as relative 
adjectives. The uses of each class will be clear from 
the examples given below : 



I take this [demonstrative] woman to be my wedded wife. 

That [demonstrative] point is clearly made. 

Which [interrogative] course shall you follow ? 

I asked what [interrogative] plans he had made. 

I know by experience what [relative] sort of man he is.^ 



1 This word is in form a participle, but its force is that of an adjec- 
tive, and it may properly be classed as such. See § 98. 

2 Yonder and yon are also called demonstrative adjectives. 

^ To the present writer, this is equivalent to " I know by experience 
the sort of man that he is," and he accordingly classes that as a relative. 
It is perfectly possible, however, to regard it as an interrogative. 



CHAP, x] Adjectives lOi 

6. Years passed, during which [relative] interval he wandered 
far. 

7. Whatever [indefinite relative] plans you make, you run the 
risk of failure. 

8. Whatsoever [indefinite relative] things are true . . . 
tliink on these things. 

It is sometimes difficult to distinguish between 
relative and interrogative adjectives, e.g., '' I know 
what pleas you will make " {i.e., I know the pleas that 
you will make) and *^ I am uncertain zvJiat reasons you 
will give." In the latter sentence a question is im- 
plied. Wherever a question seems implied the adjec- 
tive which or zvhat should be classed as interrogative. 
See page 100, note i. 

What in " what a storm ! " '' zvhat terrible noises ! " 
may be classified as an interrogative adjective, but 
its force is exclamatory (see § 23), and it may also 
be called an exclamatory adjective. 

81. Pronominal Adjectives. — Demonstrative, inter- 
rogative, and relative adjectives are sometimes called 
pronominal adjectives, that is, adjectives which are 
also used as pronouns. We shall apply this term 
more particularly to the class of words which we have 
treated as adjective pronouns (§ y6). When such 
words as many, all, some are used as pronouns {e.g,, 
*' many have come "), we call them adjective pronouns, 
that is, pronouns that are also used as adjectives. 
When they are used as adjectives {e.g., ^^ many men 
have come," ''all men are mortal," ''some men are 
rich ") we call them pronominal adjectives. 



102 English Grammar [chap, x 

EXERCISE 

1. Change the sentences in the exercise following 
§ TJ in such a way that they will contain demonstra- 
tive or pronominal adjectives. 

2. Change fifteen sentences in the exercise follow- 
ing § 71 in such a way that they will contain relative 
or interrogative adjectives. 

82. Comparison of Adjectives. — With the exception 
of this and that^ adjectives are not inflected for num- 
ber ; none are inflected for case. Some, however, 
are inflected to show the degree to which a noun 
possesses a quality or characteristic. This process is 
called comparison. There are said to be three degrees 
of comparison, — the positive, the comparative, and 
the superlative. Adjectives which simply denote the 
quality possessed, without stating the degree to which 
it is possessed, are said to be positive, e.g,^ '' a clear 
day," ''bright sunshine." Adjectives which state 
that the quality is possessed to a greater extent than 
by some other object, are said to be comparative, e.g.^ 
'' 2l clearer day," ''brighter sunshine." Adjectives 
stating that the quality is possessed to a greater ex- 
tent than by all other objects, or to the greatest pos- 
sible extent, are said to be superlative, e.g., ''the 
clearest day," ''the brightest sunshine." 

83. Methods of Comparison. — Adjectives are com- 
pared according to one of two methods: (i) by the 
addition of er and est to the positive, to form the 
comparative and the superlative, e.g., clear, clearer, 



CHAP, x] Adjectives 103 

clearest ; (2) by using the adverbs more and most for 
the same purpose, e.g.^ extraordinary^ 7nore extraor- 
dinary^ most extraordinary. The adverbs less and 
least are employed in a similar way to denote com- 
parison on a descending instead of an ascending 
scale, e.g.y beaut if id ^ less beautiful^ least beaittifitl. 
The first method is a form of inflection (see § 26), 
and is the older English method ; the second is rather 
composition (§ 29) than inflection, though its effect is 
equivalent to that of inflection. It came into use only 
after the Norman conquest, and through Norman- 
French influence. Adjectives of one syllable, and 
some adjectives of two syllables, are usually compared 
by the addition of erand est. Some adjectives of two 
syllables, and all longer adjectives, are usually com- 
pared by using mo7^e and 7nost. Thus, we usually say 
stranger, strangest ; nobler, noblest ; and more mourn- 
ful^ inost mournful ; more particular, most particular. 
But it is possible to say fnore strange, most noble, 
and motcrnfullest. The ear alone decides which 
method is preferable. 

84. Irregular Comparison. — The following adjec- 
tives are irregularly compared : 





Positive. 




Comparative. 




Superlative. 


I 


Bad, ill 




worse 




worst 


2 


Far 




farther, further 




farthest, furthest 


3 


Good, well 




better 




best 


4 


Hindi 




hinder 2 




hindermost, hindmost 


5 


Late 




later, latter 




latest, last 




1 As in " 


the 


hind wheels." ^ 


As 


in '' hinder part." 



I04 English Grammar [chap, x 

Positive. Comparative. Superlative. 

6. Little less, lesser ^ least 

7. Many, much more most 

8. Near, nigh nearer, nigher nearest, nighest, next 

9. Old older, elder oldest, eldest 

These irregularities are due to changes in the 
meaning or form of words. A consideration of the 
ways in which they have come about would be inter- 
esting, but is more appropriate to historical grammar 
than to our present task. 

The following comparatives and superlatives are 
represented in the positive degree by adverbs and 
not adjectives : 

Positive. Comparative. Superlative. 

[In] inner inmost, innermost 

[Out] outer outmost, outermost 

[Up] upper upmost, uppermost 

Some adjectives ending in most have the force of 
a superlative,^ but are not found in the positive or 
comparative degree, e.g,, midmost^ northernmost, etc. 
Endmost and topmost are formed from end and top, 
which are most frequently found as nouns, though 
they may be used as adjectives, e.g,, " the end man,'' 
the ''top layer." 

85. Adjectives that are not compared. — The demon- 
strative, relative, and interrogative adjectives are not 
capable of comparison. A few pronominal adjec- 
tives, such as many, little, few, may be compared. 
The meaning of the others makes comparison impos- 

1 Note that lesser is a double comparative. 

2 Historically, they are double superlatives, for m is part of a very 
ancient inflectional ending, and ost stands for est. 



CHAP, x] Adjectives 105 

sible. The same is true of numeral adjectives. 
Words like perfect^ complete, tmiversal, can be com- 
pared only when used loosely. If we say that a 
custom is tmiversal, we mean, strictly, that it extends 
throughout the, universe. We may sometimes say, 
however, that one custom is ''more universal" than 
another, meaning that it approaches nearer to being 
universal. 

It should be noticed that in '' dearest mother," ''the 
strangest fashion," and similar phrases, comparison is 
indeed implied, but the force of the superlative is 
nearly equivalent to "very dear," "very strange." 

EXERCISE 

1. Compare the adjectives in the exercise follow- 
ing § 79- 

2. Construct sentences containing the superlative 
of each of the adjectives mentioned in § 84. 

86. The Articles. — The words ajt or a and the limit 
nouns, and are hence to be classified as adjectives. 
They also bear the special name of articles. An is a 
weakened form of the numeral adjective one, and the 
a weakened form of the demonstrative adjective that. 
An is used before words beginning with a vowel 
sound, and a before words beginning with a con- 
sonant sound. Such words as one, nnit, it should be 
noticed, do not begin with a vowel sound, though the 
first letter in each is a vowel. An is also frequently 
used before words beginning with h and not accented 
on the first syllable, e.g., "an historian." An or a is 



io6 English Grammar [chap, x 

called the indefinite article, because it denotes any 
one of a number of persons or things. The is called 
the definite article, because it usually shows its de- 
monstrative origin in pointing out a particular object 
or objects. We have a curious reminder of the origin 
of the in the colloquial word father^ i.e., ^' t/hat other," 
in which the t is the final t of the older formx of the 
article. 

The a in such phrases as '*he has gone <^-fishing " 
is not the article, but a remnant of the preposition 
on. See § 125. In '^ three times a week," and simi- 
lar phrases, it is also" historically a preposition (com- 
pare ** a dollar per week "), though the force of the 
prepositions is so completely lost that a in such in- 
stances is also classed, by some, as the indefinite 
article. In '' many a man," " such a mess," the 
article follows the adjective, instead of preceding it. 
In ** the more the better," and similar phrases, the is 
not an article, but the adverbial use of the objective 
case (see § 58) of the demonstrative pronoun that^ 
and the sense really is, ^'to that extent to which 
there is more, to that extent it is better." 

87. Nouns as Adjectives. — Nouns are frequently 
used as adjectives, as in '' 2. party question," *'the 
sound-money campaign." The force of a noun in 
the possessive or of a noun in apposition is always 
that of an adjective. 

88. Adjective-Phrases and Adjective-Clauses. — Groups 
of nouns constituting a phrase may have the force of 



CHAP. X] Adjectives \oj 

an adjective, as in *^the ho77te-nde and disestablish- 
ment programme." As a rule, however, adjective- 
phrases are introduced by an adjective,^ as in *^the 
king, poor in money and land, but rich in affection 
and reverence, summoned his subjects for a last 
heroic attempt." Relative clauses are invariably 
adjective-clauses, as in ''this is the house that Jack 
bnilty' i.e., this is the Jack-built house. 

EXERCISE 

[In parsing adjectives, it is, as a rule, only necessary to state 
what noun they limit. It is, however, customary, if adjectives 
are demonstrative, relative, pronominal, or predicate or appositive 
in use, to state the fact.] 

I. Parse all adjectives in the exercise following 

§ 79. 

II. Parse the adjectives, pronouns, and nouns in 
the following sentences : 

I. Adams w^as somewhat dogmatic, somewhat pedantic, and 
from his childhood too self-conscious and laboriously self- 
trained, as his methodical diary shows. 2. Equal and exact 
justice to all men, of whatever state or persuasion, religious or 
political ; the support of the state governments in all their 
rights. 

III. Parse the adjectives and pronouns in part 2 
of the exercise following § 15, and point out (i) 
the nouns that have the force of adjectives and 
(2) two adjective-clauses. 

1 Or, much more frequently, by a participle, as we shall see later 

(§ 126). 



io8 English Grammar [chap, xi 



CHAPTER XI 

VERBS : CONJUGATION 



/ 



89. KiNDSOF Verbs. — 90. Transitive Verbs ; Intransitive Verbs; 
Verbs of Incomplete Predication. — 91. Impersonal Verbs. 
— 92. Conjugation. — 93. Voice. — 94. Mood. — 95. Tenses.— 
96. Person and Number. — 97. The Infinitives. — 98. Par- 
ticiples.— 99. What the Conjugation of a Verb includes.— 
100. Conjugation of the Verbs Be and Have. — \{^\. Con- 
sonant Verbs and Vowel Verbs. — 102. Conjugation of Love 
and Fi7id. — \^Z. The Principal Parts of a Verb.— 104. De- 
fective Verbs. 

89. Kinds of Verbs. — Verbs, as we have seen, are 
words with which we make statements or assertions.^ 
They are of two kinds : transitive and intransitive. 

90. Transitive Verbs; Intransitive Verbs; Verbs of 
Incomplete Predication. — Verbs that require an object 
to complete their sense are called transitive {i.e.^ 
verbs in which the action ^'goes over" into an 
object). Take^ for instance, is a transitive verb, 
for we cannot make complete sense by the state- 
ment, ''the man takes," without saying what he 
takes. Verbs that do not require an object to 
complete their sense are called intransitive. Go^ for 
example, is an intransitive verb, for we can say ''the 

1 From another point of view, the verb may be defined as a word 
that expresses (^) action or {F) state, e.g.^ (a) "I strike''^ or {b) "I 
(7W." A verb usually expresses action. 



CHAP. XI] Verbs: Conj ligation 109 

man goes," making thereby a complete statement. 
Transitive verbs take objects and intransitive verbs 
do not. Some verbs may at one time be transitive 
and at another intransitive. We say, for example, 
**I see him" (transitive), and *'I see'' (intransitive), 
in the sense of ''understand"; ''I ran the engine" 
(transitive), and ''I ran down the hill" (intransitive). 
The theoretical distinction between transitive and 
intransitive verbs is not easy to make, for almost 
every English verb may, in some sense or other, be 
used intransitively. Even the verb ''take," which 
we have used above as an illustration of a transitive 
verb, is practically intransitive in the command ''take 
and eat," and fully intransitive in the colloquial ex- 
pression "it takes^' i.e., it attracts interest or receives 
approval. On the other hand, it is not hard to dis- 
tinguish, in any particular instance, between a verb 
that takes an object and a verb that does not take an 
object. 

The intransitive verbs be, become, and seem, which 
do not express a complete idea, e.g., "I am,'' "I 
seem," are called verbs of incomplete predication. 
Other verbs, such as feel, look, appear, fall into the 
same class, in some of their uses, eg., " I feel well," 
"he looked cheerful." Be is sometimes called a 
cppula or link-word. In the rare sense of " exist," 
it is not a verb of incomplete predication, eg., "God 
is." These verbs are followed by the nominative, 
not the objective case, and by adjectives, not adverbs. 
See §§ 55, 3, and 159. 



no English Grammar [chap, xi 

91. Impersonal Verbs. — Certain intransitive verbs 
are most frequently used with the subject it {e.g., ''it 
snows,'' ''it rains''), which has, in such cases, no 
reference to any definite object. " It snows " merely 
means that snow is falling, not that anything is snow- 
ing. Such verbs, when used in this w^ay,/are called 
impersonal verbs. Almost all these verbs, however, 
may be used in other ways, with personal subjects, as 
transitive or intransitive verbs, e:g., " the Lord rained 
fire upon them," "the earth thundered beneath their 
tread." 

EXERCISE 

In the exercises following § i8 and § 25, point 
out the intransitive, transitive, and impersonal verbs, 
and those of incomplete predication. 

' 92. Conjugation. — Verbs undergo regular changes 
in form (or are inflected, see § 26) to express differ- 
ences in meaning. The sum of a verb's inflections 
is called its conjugation. The inflection or conjuga- 
tion of a verb is sometimes carried on, as we shall 
see, by the addition of words as well as by changes 
in the word itself. Shall see, for instance, may be 
regarded as a form of the verb see, exactly as John's 
is regarded as a form of the noun John, though in 
the former instance an independent word is added 
and in the latter only a purely inflectional ending. 
Verbs are inflected to express voice, mood, tense, 
person, and number. 

93. Voices. — Verbs that represent the subject as 
acting {e.g., " I strike," " I believe him") are said to be 



CHAP, xij Verbs : Conjugation III 

in the active voice. Verbs that represent the subject 
as acted upon {e.g.^ **I was struck,'' ^' he was believed''^ 
are said to be in the passive ^ voice. Transitive verbs 
may occur in both the active and the passive voices, as 
has been shown by the examples given above. This 
is because the object of a transitive verb can always 
be made the subject of the same verb in the passive. 
*^ I struck him " may be changed into ''he was struck 
by me " ; *^ I believe him'' into "/^^was believed by 
me." Intransitive verbs have no passives, for, as 
they do not take objects, they are powerless to repre- 
sent anything as acted upon. 

EXERCISE 

In the passage following § 14, which verbs are 
active and which passive.^ N.B. — Verbs of incom- 
plete predication (§ 90) are, strictly speaking, neither 
active nor passive. 

94. Moods. — In the active and passive voices alike 
verbs are said to be in the (i) indicative, (2) subjunc- 
tive, or (3) imperative moods, according as they repre- 
sent statements (i) as actual facts, (2) as thoughts, 
(3) as commands. 

I. The indicative mood is by far the most common 
of the three, for w^e usually represent statements as 
facts. In each of the following assertions, for example, 
the verbs state something as an undoubted f act,^ rather 
than as a conceivable thought : (i) ''the coach slowly 

1 Passive means " enduring," that is, acted upon. 

2 With a negative word, as a negative fact, e.g., " I shall not come." 



112 English G^^ammar [chap, xi 

climbed the hill"; (2) ''if he comes to-day, I shall 
meet him at the station " ; (3) '' if you are the proper 
person, I will pay you the whole amount." The 
verbs climbed, shall meet, and will pay assert state- 
ments as facts, and the verbs comes and are assume 
statements as conditional or hypothetical /acts. 

II. The subjunctive mood represents statements as 
thoughts or conceptions, which may or may not have 
a basis in reality, or which are obviously not conceiv- 
able as facts. In ''if you ai^e the proper person, I 
zvill pay you the whole amount," the verbs are in the 
indicative. In (i) "^God grant that she be safe," 
(2) "if I be I, as I think [that] I be;' (3) "if you 
we7''e the proper person, you could show proof of it," 
the italicized verbs are in the subjunctive mood. In 
(i) grant, instead of the indicative ^r(^;^/i', shows that 
the act of granting is not assumed or asserted as a 
fact, but wished, hoped, or prayed for. In (i) and 
(2) the subjunctives be, instead of the indicatives is 
and am, show that the speaker has doubts of the 
assertion. In (3) were, instead of the indicative are, 
shows that the hypothesis cannot be accepted, that 
"you" are not to be considered as the "proper 
person." 

The subjunctive mood is very little used in Modern 
English, for our language, with its intolerance of slight 
or unnecessary distinctions by means of inflection, has 
slowly dropped it. Now and then, however, it occurs, 
especially in the conditional phrases " if I wei^e,'' 
"if it be;' etc., and it behooves an educated man or 



CHAP. XI] Verbs : ConJ7tgatio7t 113 

woman to understand and appreciate this most deli- 
cate form of expression by inflection in our language, 
involving a distinction which must, in many cases, be 
felt, for it cannot be analyzed. For a further treat- 
ment of the subjunctive, see §§ 167-172. 

III. The imperative mood, which is much more 
common than the subjunctive, expresses command or 
entreaty {e.g., ''go away," '' hit him "). It is usually 
found only in the second person, that is, with the 
implied subject yoit {ye or thoit, in antique expres- 
sions), inasmuch as commands and entreaties are 
addressed to other persons than the speaker. Even 
when we pretend to comimand or entreat ourselves, 
we address ourselves in the second person. But there 
is a rare imperative of the first person {e.g., '' charge 
zve upon the foe") to cover cases in which the speaker 
addresses himself as well as others. For '' let its 
advance,'' and similar expressions, see § 106. 

EXERCISE^ 
In the following sentences, which verbs are indic- 
ative, which subjunctive, and which imperative } 

I. Though justice be thy plea, consider this. 2. Be merciful : 
take thrice thy money,; bid me tear the bond. 3. Thy will be 
done. 4. Long live^the king. 5. I ^Yish that I were safe at 
home. 6. It is^proposed that the two companies be united. 

7. This night, before the cock crow, thou shalt deny me thrice. 

8. If my son were here, I could not conceal the fact. 9. Unless 
love. go with marriage, the bond is a mockery. 

^ Pupils will need considerable help on this exercise, and it may be 
better not to assign it as a lesson, but to use it in class-work as illus- 
trative of the principles stated in the foregoing sections. It is inserted 
in the hope of helping students to obtain a feeling for the subjunctive. 
I 



1 14 English Grammar [chap, xi 

95. Tenses. — Verbs are said to be in one tense 
(from the Latin tempiis^ or ''time") or another ac- 
cording as they represent action as going on at one 
time or another {e.g., '' I go,'' '' I went''). In EngHsh 
we recognize six tenses : the present, the pasf, the 
future, the perfect, the pluperfect^ (or pa^t perfect), 
and the future perfect. In the (i) present, (2) past, 
and (3) future tenses a verb represents acts as (i) 
taking place (e.g., ''I go")] (2) as having already 
taken place {eg., " I went") ; and (3) as going to take 
place {e.g., " I shall go "). The (4) perfect, (5) pluper- 
fect, and (6) future ■ perfect represent respectively 
acts as (4) completed at the present moment {e.g., 
*' I have gone")', as (5) completed at some time in the 
past {e.g., " I had gone ") ; and as (6) to be completed 
at some time in the future {e.g.^ *' I shall have gone "). 
The force of (4), (5), and (6) can be more clearly 
seen from the following examples : (4) ^' I have fin- 
ished [perfect] my work and am [present] now at 
leisure" ; (5) '' I had made [pluperfect] my arrange- 
ments before I received [past] your telegram " ; 
(6) '' I shall have completed [future perfect] my ar- 
rangements before your telegram zvill reach [future] 
me." The present and the past are the only tenses 
formed by inflection. All the others are made by 
adding to the verb parts of the verbs be and have. It 
is this method, common to most of the modern Indo- 
European languages, that distinguishes them sharply 
from the older Indo-European languages. In Latin, 

1 From the ludXva plusquam pej'fectum, "more than perfect." 



CHAP, xi] Verbs : Conjugation 115 

for example, distinctions of voice, mood, and tense 
were represented in the great majority of instances 
by changes in the form of the verb, and not by the 
addition of separate words. 

EXERCISE^ 

Name the tenses of the itahcized verbs in the fol- 
lowing sentences. Are the verbs active or passive t 

I. It was the Norman conquest that had primarily brought 
about the degradation of the native speech. 2. If many words 
belonging to the Anglo-Saxon have disappeared from the tongue 
now spoken^ their places have been more than supplied by impor- 
tations from foreign sources. 3. These have now beco7ne so 
thoroughly identified with the words that have co7ne from the 
original speech, that, in a large number of cases, no one but the 
special student is conscious of any difference in their origin. 
4. Oranges and lemons, say the bells of St. Clement's. 5. The 
north wind doth blow, and we shall have snow. 6. An old 
woman was sweeping her house, and she found a little crooked 
sixpence. 7. When the last foe shall have been driven from our 
shores, then, and not till then, will the war cease. 8. Little 
Tommy Tucker sings for his supper. What shall he eat f White 
bread and butter. 

96. Person and Number. — In the older Indo- 
European languages verbs were inflected to indi- 
cate the first, second, and third persons in both the 
singular and the plural numbers. In Latin, for ex- 
ample, amo means *^ I love"; amas, "thou lovest " ; 
amaty "he loves''; amamiis, "we love"; amatis, 
"you [plural] love"; amant, "they love." In Mod- 

^The conjugation of the tenses has not yet been given, but it is not 
thought that the pupil will have difBculty in identifying them. The 
exercise may, however, be used for purposes of illustration. 



Ii6 English Grammar [chap, xi 

ern English very few such inflections remain. In 
antique phraseology we still use the expressions 
''thou lovest'' and ''he zvalketh'' \ but, aside from 
these almost obsolete forms, the only distinction of 
the sort that we make is in the present tense between 
loves and love. We say " I, we, you, or/they love^' 
but "he, she, or it loves'' In the past tense no such 
distinction is made : we say " I, we, you, they, he, she, 
or it loved!' An exception is- made in the case of 
the verb be, which has several inflectional forms, as 
we shall soon see. 

' EXERCISE 

State the tense, the person, and the number of 
the italicized verbs in the following sentences. Are 
the verbs transitive or intransitive; active or passive; 
indicative, subjunctive, or imperative.'^ 

I. \^\i2X hast XhoVi do 71 ef 2. Make\\2i^\t. 3. I /^^/ perfectly 
happy. 4. It was a lucky hit that I viade. 5. A gunshot was 
heard. 6. Entreat me not to leave thee. 7. We shall now 
enter on our task. 8. Though the king comniaiid me, I shall 
not budge. 9. They /^<^^ i"/^/^<?;/ the truth. 10. Fear not. 

97. Infinitives. — Two important parts of the verb 
we have not yet described, the infinitive and the par- 
ticiple. The infinitive is a verbal noun or verb-noun, 
that is, a word which has the force both of a verb and 
of a noun {e.g., ^^ seeing is believing,'" '^ to hear is to 
obey"). Here the italicized words are roughly equiva- 
lent to the nouns sight, belief, compreJiensioii, obedi- 
ence, and have the construction of nouns, in that they 
are subjects of the verb is or predicate nominatives 



CHAP. XI] Verbs: Coiijitgation 117 

after the same verb. But, though they do not 
make statements, they have also the force of verbs, 
m that they represent acts as being accomphshed or 
a process as bemg carried on.^ The infinitive has 
three forms : (i) with the sign to, as in one of the 
examples given above ; (2) without the sign to, as in 
'* I can do it"; and (3) with the ending ing^ as in 
one of the examples given above. The infinitive may 
be active {e,g., to love), or passive {to be loved)] and 
may be present or perfect in form {to love, to have 
loved), though the distinction is not strictly one of 
time (see § 114). The force and use of the infinitive 
will be explained later (§§ 1 15-122). 

98. Participles. — A participle is a verb-adjective. 
As a verb, it expresses action; as an adjective, it 
modifies a noun or its equivalent. In ''the mshing 
river," for instance, riLshing is a participle, modifying 
river ; in ^'seizing him by the arm, his friend led him 
away," seizing is a participle, modifying friend. In 
the former case, the participle describes the noun as 
an adjective would, and contains also the idea of 
action. In the latter case, the participle does not 
exactly describe its noun, but represents action as 
connected with it. Participles may be active {e.g., 
loving) or passive {loved or being loved) ; and 

1 It was long customary to call the infinitive (literally, " unlimited ") 
a mood of the verb, because it represents the essential thought of the 
verb vi^ithout limitation of time, i.e., to hear is the act of " hearing," 
whether in the present, past, or future. But this is really equivalent to 
saying that this part of the verb has the force of a noun or is a verbal 
noun. 2 This form is sometimes called the gerund. 



1 1 8 EnglisJi Grammar [chap, xi 

present {loving), past {loved), or perfect {having 
loved), though here, as in the case of the infinitive, 
the distinction is not strictly one of time (see § 114). 
All words in ing are not necessarily participles (see 
§ 128). 

EXERCISE 

The teacher is recommended to illustrate the statements made 
in the preceding section from the exercises following §§ 122 and 
127, postponing practice in recognizing and parsing infinitives 
and participles until these exercises are reached. 

99. What the Conjugation of a Verb includes. — As 

is shown by the foregoing analysis, the conjugation 
of a verb consists of the various forms which it takes, 
by inflection or in combination with parts of other 
verbs, to express (i) voice, (2) mood, (3) tense, 
(4) person, (5) number, together with its infinitives 
and participles. For our present purpose we shall 
omit the subjunctive mood. It is rarely used, and 
can be appropriately and conveniently treated under 
Syntax (see §§ 167-172). 

100. Conjugation of the Verbs Be and Have. — As 

the verbs be and have are used in forming the conju- 
gation of almost all other verbs, it will be convenient 
to begin our study of conjugation with them. 





BE 








INDICATIVE 


MOOD. 






Present Tense. 






Singular. 




Plural. 


First Person, 


I am 




we are 


Second Person, 


you are (thou art) 




you (ye) are 


Third Person, 


he is 




they are 



CHAP. Xl] 



Verbs : Conjugation 



119 



Past Tense. 





Singular. 


Plural. 


First Person, 


I was 


we were 


Secojid Person, 


you were (thou wert) 


you were 


Third Person, 


he was 

Future Tense. 


they were 




Singtdar. 


Plural. 


First Person, 


I shall be 


we shall be 


Second Person, 


you will be (thou wilt be) 


you will be 


Third Person, 


he wall be 

Perfect Tense. 


they will be 




Singular. 


Phcral. 


Plrst Person, 


I have been 


we have been 


Second Person, 


you have been 
(thou hast been) 


you have been 


Third Person, 


he has been 

Pluperect Tense. 


they have been 




Singular. 


Plural. 


First Person, 


I had been 


we had been 


Second Person, 


you had been 
(thou hadst been) 


you had been 


Third Person, 


he had been 


they had been 



Future Perfect Tense. 

Single la r, Plu ra I. 

First Person, I shall have been w^e shall have been 

Second Persofi, you will have been you will have been 

(thou wilt have been) 

Third Person, he will have been they will have been 



Imperative mood, be. Infinitives : present, [to] be, being; 
perfect, [to] have been, having been. Participles: present, 
being; past, been; perfect, having been. 

Notes. — Historical grammar shows that the conjugation of 
this verb is based on three different root-verbs : one is seen in 
^vas, were-, another \n be, beeji ; and another still in am. — An 



I20 - English Grammar [chap, xi 

old form {be) of the third person pkiral of the present indicative 
is used in literary English in rare instances, particularly in 
poetry, with a peculiarly impressive effect ; e.g.^ " where be the 
gloomy shades and desolate mountains." It is also very com- 
monly heard in vulgar English in all three persons ; eg.^ ^^ where 
be they?" — Notice that the future is formed by the aid of shall^ 
and the perfect tenses by the aid of have. Be is, of course, an 
intransitive verb, and is never found in the passive. 

HAVE 
INDICATIVE MOOD. 
Present. Past. 

I have we have I had we had 

you have you have you had you had 

(thou hast) (thou hadst) 

he has they have he had they had 

Future. 

I shall have we shall have 

you will have (thou wilt have) you will have 

he will have they will have 

Perfect. 

I have had we have had 

you have had (thou hast had) you have had 

he has had they have had 

Pluperfect. 
I had had we had had 

you had (thou hadst) had you had had 

he had had they had had 

Future Perfect. 
I shall have had we shall have had 

you will (thou wilt) have had you will have had 
he will have had they will have had 

hnperative^ have. Infinitives : present^ [to] have, having ; 
perfect^ [to] have had; having had. Participles: present, hav- 
ing ; past^ had ; perfect, having had. 



CHAP. XI] P^e/'ds : Conjugation 1 2 1 

101. Consonant Verbs and Vowel Verbs. — As regards 
conjugation English verbs may be divided into two 
great classes: (i) those that form their past tense 
by adding d, /, or ed to the present tense, as love^ 
loved ; hum, bnrned or burnt ; and (2) those that form 
their past tenses by changing the vowel of the present, 
as I'nn, ran. The first method is that followed by the 
majority of English verbs, and has become the regu- 
lar method for all new verbs {e.g.^ telephone^ tele- 
phoned). Verbs of the first class have, therefore, 
frequently been called regular verbs. They are also 
called weak verbs, because they must make use of an 
inflectional ending to indicate the past tense. Verbs 
of the second class have similarly been called irregtc- 
lar verbs, because they form their past tense in several 
other ways, or strong verbs, because they form their 
past tense by an internal change, without the aid of 
an inflectional ending. It makes little difference 
what names we give to these two classes of verbs, but 
it seems, on the whole, better to call them consonant 
verbs and vowel verbs. ^ Consonant verbs ^ are those 
that make their past tense by the addition of the con- 
sonant </ (^<^) or t (e.g., love, loved). Vowel verbs are 
those that make their past tense by a change in the 
vowel of the present tense {e.g.^ rnny 7'an\ We shall now 
examine the conjugation of a typical verb of each class. 

1 See Sweet, N'ew English Grammar, part i (1892), p. 391. 

2 Verbs like lay, laid (for " layed "), say, said, etc., are to be re- 
garded as consonant verbs. The change of the vowel is merely a 
question of spelling. Some verbs, e.g., catch, caught, both change the 
vowel and take the ending. They belong to both classes. 



122 



E7iglish Grammar 
EXERCISE 



[chap. XI 



Are the following words vowel verbs or consonant 
verbs ? 

Abide, amuse, awake, bind, bleach, dwell, find, pen, ride, rise, 
strike, stint, strike. 

102. Conjugation of Love and Find. — The subjunctive 
mood, it should be noticed, is reserved for treatment 
under Syntax, §§ 167-172. 



LOVE 





Active. 




Prese7it 




Singular. 




Plural. 


I love 




we love 


you love 




you love 


(thou lovest) 




he loves 


Past. 


they love 


I loved 




we loved 


you loved 




you loved 


(thou lovedst) 




they loved 




they loved 



Passive. 

Presefit. 
Singular. Plural. 

I am loved we are loved 

you are loved you are loved 

(thou art loved) 
he is loved they are loved 

Past. 



I was 1 

you were,i etc. J 



loved 



Future. 
I shall we shall 

you will you will 

(thou wilt) 
he will they will J 



Future. 



love 



I shall 1 1 

you will, etc. j 



be loved 



Perfect. 



Perfect. 



I have 



you have,^ etc. j 



I- loved 



I have 



you have,- etc. j 



\ been loved 



1 The other forms follow the conjugation of be^ § lOO. 

2 The other forms follow the conjugation oi have. See § lOO. 



CHAP. XI] 



Verbs : Conjugation 



123 



Past Perfect. 
I had 1 loved 

Future Perfect. 
I shall have loved 

Love 



Past Perfect. 
I had 1 been loved 

Future Perfect. 
I shall have been loved 



Imperative. 



Be loved 



Infinitive. 
Prese7it active^ [to] love, loving 
Perfect active^ [to] have loved, having loved 
Present passive^ [to] be loved, being loved 
Perf ect passive s [to] have been loved, having been loved 



Present^ loving 
Past^ loved 
Perfect J having loved 



Participles. 

Present^ loved, being loved 
Perfect^ having been loved 

FIND 



Active. 


Passive. 


Indicative. 


Indicative 


Present. 

I find we find 


Present. 


you find you find 

(thou findest) 
he finds they find 


I am 

you are, etc. 


■ fou 


Past. 

I found we found 


Past. 


you found you found 

(thou foundest) 
he found they found 


I was 

you were, etc 


1'" 



The rest of the conjugation is exactly parallel to that 
of love. 

Notes. — The old-fashioned second person singular of the 
present appears variously as lovestj toiPst, or tovst. Sometimes 

1 The other forms follow the conjugation of have. See § 100. 



124 EnglisJi Grammar [chap, xi 

when the corresponding ending of the past would be difficult to pro- 
nounce, it is dropped entirely? as in '^ thou casV for ^^ thou castedst.^'' 
There is also an antique form in etk for the third person singular 
of the present tense, e.g., " he pray etk best who loveth best." 

103. The Principal Parts of a Verb. — The conjuga- 
tion of a verb is based on three principal forms, or 
'* principal parts," — the present tense, the past tense, 
and the past participle. From these forms, by com- 
bination with the verbs shall, have, and be\ are made 
all the other verb-forms. An English-speaking per- 
son can in most cases discover the principal parts of 
a verb by reflecting what form he would use in speech. 
He knows that he says *'I love,'' in the present; "^ I 
loved,'' in the past; *^ I have loved," in the perfect, 
and, similarly, "Ifijid," "\ found," ''\ have foimd" 
As the perfect tense is formed by the combination of 
have with the past participle, he knows that the prin- 
cipal parts of the verbs love and^;^<^are love, loved, 
loved ; find, fotmd, foimd. If, in the case of any 
verb, he be in doubt as to these principal forms, his 
natural resource is the dictionary. It will not, there- 
fore, be necessary to give here the long list of the 
irregular consonant verbs and of the various sets of 
vowel verbs. We shall, however, consider for a 
moment the more important of the ways by which 
verbs form the past tense and the past participle. 

Consonant verbs, as we have seen, form the past 
tense by the addition of d {ed) or t to the present. 
The past participle is usually identical in form with 
the past tense. The usual ending is {e)d, but in a 



CHAP. XI] Verbs: ConjiLgation 125 

number of cases t only is found, as in send, sent 
(for ''sended"). Sometimes, also, both forms are 
used, as in builded or bidlt, drea7ned or dreamt. The 
addition of the consonant ending sometimes brings 
about slight changes, as in leave, left, which scarcely 
entitle a word to be classed as a vowel verb. A few 
consonant verbs change the vowel, as well as add a 
consonant,^ e.g., seek, sought ; sell, sold. 

No general rules can be given for the changes of 
vowels in the past tenses of vowel verbs. The prin- 
cipal parts of almost all these verbs seem at first an 
inextricable mass of irregularities, and often only a 
thorough knowledge of the history of the language, 
from the earliest times down, will enable the student 
to understand why one form rather than another 
is used. Many of the vowel verbs may, however, 
be arranged in certain groups, the members of each 
of which agree in making the same vowel changes. 
The past participle of vowel verbs usually ends in 
e7i or n. These groups are as follows : 

1. Verbs that change i (in the present tense) to o 
(in the past), e.g., drive, drove, driven. Others are 
ride, rise, shine, smite, stride, strive, thrive, write. 

2. Verbs that change i (present) to a or u (past) 
and li (past participle^), e.g., drink, drank, drunk. 
Others are begin, cling, fling, ring, shrink, siitg, sink, 

1 See § loi, note 2. 

2 Notice that these verbs do not have a past participle ending in 
{e)n^ except in the case of drunken, shrunken, and sunken, and that 
these are now used almost invariably as adjectives. 



126 E^iglish Gi'ainmar [chap, xi 

sling, slink, spin, spring, stick, sting, stink, szvim, 
szving, wring. 

3. Verbs that change ea (present) into o (past), and 
o (past participle), e.g., bear, bore, borii{e\ Others 
are break, heave, shear, speak, steal, swear, tear, t^^ead, 
weave. / 

4. Verbs that change (present) into e (past). 
The past participle usually retains the vowel of the 
present. E.g., blow, blew, blown\ Others are crow, 
grozv, hold, know, throw. 

Some verbs are unchanged in their principal parts, 
e.g., quit. Others are cast, cost, cnt, hit, hurt, let, put, 
rid, set, spread, thncst. 

Having once noticed these few groups of verbs 
with uniform principal parts, the pupil need not con- 
cern himself further about them. A knowledge of 
the parts of English verbs he can best gather from 
reading and observation. Whenever he is in doubt 
as to the form of a particular verb, he should consult 
a standard dictionary or the list of principal parts 
given in a standard grammar. Advanced students 
will find a clear and interesting account of the Old 
English vowel and consonant verbs, their various 
classes, and the history of the changes that have 
occurred in their inflection in Middle and Modern 
English, in Lounsbury's History of the Eitglish Lan- 
guage, revised edition (1894), part ii, chap. 5, and 
Emerson's History of the English Language (1895), 
chap. 21. 

A list of all common vowel verbs, and of all con- 



CHAP, xi] Verbs: Coiijiigatioii 127 

sonant verbs that exhibit marked peculiarities, with 
their principal parts, is given in the Appendix, IV. 

EXERCISE 

State the present, past, and perfect tenses of the 
following verbs : 

Beat, beseech, bleed, bring, buy, drink, fall, flee, freeze, hold, 
shake, shine, sink, slide, stave, swim, teach, weave, wet. 

104. Defective Verbs. — A few verbs are defective, 
that is, they appear only in certain forms and cannot 
be conjugated throughout. The most important- of 
these defective verbs are shall^ will, may, can, must, 
ottght. 

Must and ought are used only in the present tense. 
The remainder have the past tenses should, woitld, 
might, could^ but no other tense forms. ^ These verbs 
make no inflectional change to denote person or 
number,^ except in the second person singular, for 
which there are the antiquated forms sJialt, wilt, 

1 Less important are quoth, the past tense of an old verb meaning 
" to say," used only in the first and third persons singular (rarely, plural) 
\\\\.\\ the subject following it, e.g.^ quoth he ; hight, "is or was called," 
a past tense, now rarely used in poetry as a present or past passive, 
e.g., "father he hight^\' yclept^ the past participle of a verb meaning 
" to call," now rarely used, under the same conditions as the preceding, 
e.g., yclept Lataicelot., " called Launcelot." 

2 The / in r^z//(f was inserted to make the past tense analogous to 
those of shall and will., where the / was a part of the verb. 

^ In the sense of " determine," will may be conjugated throughout 
as a regular consonant verb, e.g., " he wills to do it," " he has willed 
that it shall be done." 

^ That these verbs do not add s in the third person singular of the 
present is due to the fact that they were originally past tenses. 



128 English Grammar [chap, xi 

mayst, canst ^ ongJitest (present) ; and shoiddst^ zvotddst, 
mtgktesty cotddst (past). Mtcst is invariable. 

Shall and will are used to form the future of the 
verb be{\ lOo), and, in combination with an infinitive, 
to form all future tenses. Peculiarities in the use 
and meaning of shall and will will be dfecussed in 
§ 107. The past tenses shoidd, woidd, might, coidd, 
do not have the usual force of past tenses, as will 
be explained in §§ 110-113. The chief use of these 
verbs is as auxiliaries (§ 106). 

Must, ought, sJioidd, zvoidd, may, might, can, and 
cotdd are frequently employed in combination with 
a perfect infinitive, e.g., should have gone, might have 
gone. These expressions are to be classed as verb- 
phrases (§ 105), as in the indicative or subjunctive 
mood, according to the circumstances, and as in the 
perfect tense. 

EXERCISE 

Run rapidly over the exercises on pages 156 and 
161, pointing out the verbs, and stating whether they 
are transitive, intransitive, or of incomplete predica- 
tion ; active or passive ; and in what tenses they are 
found. 



CHAP, xii] Verb -Phrases 1 29 



CHAPTER XII 

VERB-PHRASES, AUXILIARY VERBS, AND VERBALS 

105. Verb-Phrases. — 106. Auxiliary Verbs. — 107. S/ia//Ai^D Will 

— 108. May. — 109. Ca?2. — 110. Should. — 111. Would. — 
112. iW^/il. — llZ. Could. — 114i. Verbals. — 115. To with the 
Infinitive. — 116. The Infinitive as Subject. — 117. The 
Infinitive as Object of a Verb. — 118. The Infinitive 
after a Preposition. — 119. The Complementary In- 
finitive. — 120. The Possessive with the Infinitive. — 
121. The Object of the Infinitive. — 122. The Subject of 
THE Infinitive. — 123. Words Participial only in Form. — 
124. Attributive Participles. — 125. Predicate Participles. 

— 126. Appositive Participles. — 127. Absolute Participles. 

— 128. Classification of Words in in^. 

105. Verb-Phrases. — It will be remembered that, 
strictly speaking, only two tenses of the English 
verb are formed by inflection, the present and the 
past, and only one voice, the active. The other tenses 
of the active voice, and all the tenses of the passive 
voice, are formed by combinations of the infinitives 
and participles of the verb with various parts of the 
verbs de and /lave. All such compound expressions 
may, strictly speaking, be called verb-phrases, i.e., 
groups of tw^o or more words, which, taken together, 
can be regarded as verbs. It has been thought 
expedient in this book, however, to follow the time- 
honored custom of considering the conjugation of the 
verb as including the passive voice and the compound 



130 Englisli Gimnmar [chap, xii 

tenses, and to reserve the term verb-phrases for such 
expressions as I do love, I am lovingy etc. The first 
of these verb-phrases is composed of do {did) and the 
infinitive of the verb (§ 97). It occurs in the present 
and the past tenses/ and is known as the emphatic 
form of the verb.^ The second is composed of be 
and the present participle of the verb. It may be 
conjugated throughout {e.g.^ I am loving^ I was loving^ 
I am being loved, etc.), and is known as the progres- 
sive form of the verb, because it indicates that the 
action or condition denoted by the verb is, was, or 
will be going on at the time referred to. Similar 
verb-phrases are *^I am -about to love,' ^'T am to 
love.'' ^ For the infinitive in such expressions, see 
§ 119. 

106. Auxiliary Verbs. — Auxiliary or helping verbs 
are those used in combination with the infinitives or 
participles of a verb to complete its conjugation or to 
form verb-phrases. The auxihary verbs are be, have, 
let, do, shall, will, may, can, 7nnst, ought. Of these 
be is used in all the forms of the passive voice, in the 
future tenses of the active voice, and in several verb- 

^ In the perfect, e.g.^ " I have done lost it (I done lost it)," the phrase 
is confined to vulgar English. 

2 This form is now regularly used in questions involving the present 
and past tenses, e.g.^ '•'•did you not love him?" instead of '•'- loved yo it 
him not?" 

^ An adverb or preposition is sometimes so closely joined in mean- 
ing with a verb that both together may be taken as verb-phrase, e.g.^ 
" I laughed at him heartily," *' he could not be found when he was 
looked for. ^'' 



CHAP, xii] Auxiliary Verbs 131 

phrases (§ 105); Jiave is used in all perfect tenses.^ 
All the other auxiliary verbs are used in combination 
with the simple infinitive (§ 97), e.g., "\ do love'' 
Let with the infinitive supplies the lacking imperative 
of the first and third persons (§ 94), e.g., ^'let its go," 
''let them go." Do is used in the emphatic verb- 
phrase (§ 105); and mttst and ought in verb-phrases 
expressing necessity and obligation, e.g., '' I must go,'' 
**I otight to have gone."'^ The uses of the other 
auxiliaries will require more detailed explanation. 

107. Shall and Will. — Shall and zvill are used 
with the infinitive to form the future tenses of all 
verbs, as well as verb-phrases. The distinction be- 
tween shall and will in the future tense and in these 
verb-phrases is often a delicate one and should be 
carefully studied. Not to make the distinction is 
generally regarded as a sign of imperfect education, 
though such misuses are common in the United 
States, Scotland, and Ireland, and to a less extent in 
England. Indeed, some philologists affirm that the 
distinction is an artificial one (it is certainly not older 
than the eighteenth century), for which schoolmasters 
and rhetoricians are largely responsible. The main 
differences between the uses of shall and will can, 
however, be easily mastered. 

In the first place, the future tense (§ 102) of all 

1 Certain intransitive verbs of motion, co7}ie, go, and arrive, may 
make their perfects and pluperfects with am and was.^ in accordance 
Vi\\h. an old usage, instead of with have and had, e.g., " I am come^'' 
"he is gone. ^'' Compare the similar usage in French and German. 

^ With ought the sign of the infinitive (/^) is expressed. See § 97. 



132 E^iglish Grmnmai' [chap, xii 

verbs employs shall in the first person and will in 
the other two persons, e.g., " I or zve shall go," '^you 
will go," ''they ivill go." This is the invariable 
usage in all expressions denoting future action. In 
the second place, the auxiliaries may be used to form 
verb-phrases, in which the original meanings of shall 
(obligation) and will (inclination or determination) 
are prominent. In these verb-phrases the use of 
the auxiliaries is exactly the opposite of that in the 
future tense ; that is, will is used wdth the first per- 
son, shall with the second and third persons.^ '' I or 
we will go," then, is a verb-phrase, meaning ''I or 
we intend to go " ; ''you or they shall go," is a verb- 
phrase equivalent to "you or they are obliged to go." 
In questions of the first person will is not used. 
We say ''shall we go .'^ " not " zvill we go .^ " We 
may use will, however, with the negative when the 
verb is, as it were, quoted from a preceding affirmative 
statement, e.g., "we will go, wont we .'^ " In ques- 
tions of the second and third persons either shall 
or will is used, according to the answer expected. 
" Shall you go .^ " implies the answer " I shall (not)." 
" Will you go } " implies " I will (not)." 2 

^ It may assist the pupil to bear in mind that shall implies that the 
speaker is in control of the action expressed by the verb. It can be used, 
then, only when (i) he speaks of his own action, that is, in the first per- 
son, and (2) when he commands. Shall is, however, sometimes used in 
conditional clauses referring to the future, or in relative clauses having 
a conditional force, with the force of a subjunctive, e.g., " if a man shall 
steal an ox ... he shall restore five oxen." Compare should, § no. 

2 All that is said above may be easily mastered. The real diffi- 
culty in the distinction between shall and 7vill comes in subordinate 



^ 



CHAP. XII] Atixiliary Verbs 133 

EXERCISE 

In the following sentences point out (i) the auxil- 
iary verbs, stating in what tense they are found ; 
(2) the infinitives ; (3) the verb-phrases, stating their 
force. With regard to shall or zvill^ distinguish 
between its use as (4) a form of the future tense, and 
(5) as a part of a verb-phrase. 

I. Let me go. 2. Let us go. 3. After I am gone, you shall 
do what you choose. 4. How do you do? 5. You must go at 
once. 6. You must have started early. 7. You ought to go 
at once. 8. You ought to have started early. 9. You shall 
start early. 10. They will have a long journey. 11. I am won- 
dering when they will go. 12. When shall they go? 13. I 
will make no attempt of the sort. 14. You will do^ nothing of 
the sort. 15. I shall do nothing to hinder you. 16. I am 
about to start on a perilous journey. 17. I am not to whisper a 
word of it. 18. I do hope you will be prudent. 19. Did you 
hear it? 20. I fear that vve shall be too late. 21. He hopes 
that he shall arrive in season. 22. He says that he will come. 
23. Do you believe him? I don't. 

108. May. — The auxiliary may is employed to 
form verb-phrases, which are used in the following 

clauses. Shall we say (i) "he says that he will come," or "he says 
that he shall come"? Here the rule is thiat when the subjects of the 
principal and subordinate clauses are the same, the auxiliary is that 
which would be used if the subordinate clause were expressed in the 
form of a quotation. That is, the sentence given above is equivalent to 
(2) "he says ' I shall or will come,' " and we use "he shalV or "he 
wilP^ in (i) according as we should use " I shalV or "I zvilV in (2). 
It is clear, then, that we cannot say (3) " he fears that he will be too 
late," for that would be equivalent to (4) "his fear is, *I will be too 
late,'" and as 7£/z7/ with the first person denotes inclination, this would 
mean that he wanted to be too late. 

1 Will in the future tense is sometimes a polite way of stating a 
command. 



1 34 English Grammar [chap, xii 

ways: (i) to denote permission, as in '^you may no^' 
go'' \ (2) to denote possibility, as in '' I may go and 
again I may not" ; (3) in poetry or formal prose, to 
denote a wish, as in '^ may you ^'etitrji in safety"; 
and (4) in slightly formal language, in connection 
with a future event, to express itncertafnty with re- 
spect to its occurrence, as in '' I hope that you may 
arrive safely." Uses (3) and (4) are such as are ex- 
pressed in most Indo-European languages by the 
subjunctive (§§ 94 and 169, 2), and some grammaria^ns 
class them as subjunctives even in modern English. 
They may, perhaps, T^e better accounted for as equiva- 
lents of the subjunctive. . 

EXERCISE 

In the following sentences distinguish indicative 

verb-phrases denoting permission or possibility from 

those equivalent to the subjunctive. 

I. May you never regret it. 2. You may leave the room. 
3. I hope that we may now live together in peace. 4. However 
that may be, I do not believe him. 5. I may buy the house, 
but I prefer to rent it. 

109. Can. — The auxiliary can is used to form 
verb-phrases denoting ability or possibility, as in '' I 
can do so." It is distinguished from viay in that it 
usually indicates a physical possibility,^ as in ^' I can 
lift it." 

110. Should. — We now come to the past tenses of 
the auxiliaries shall, will, may, can, which have some 

1 The distinction is clearest in questions. '^ May I ? " asks permis- 
sion ; " can I ? " inquires as to possibility. 



CHAP, xii] Auxiliary Verbs 135 

uses that are difficult of explanation. A verb-phrase 
formed by should and an infinitive may be used in 
four ways : ( i ) to denote dtcty or obligation, as in 
*'you should not hesitate to help him " ; (2) to repre- 
sent the future tense in a subordinate clause,^ as in 
'*the lieutenant reported that he sJioidd be ready at 
daybreak," i.e., he reported '' I shall be,'' etc. ; (3) as 
an equivalent of the subjunctive, to imply or express 
a condition, as in '' I sJwitld be the first to welcome 
him," i.e., provided that he were here, or in ''if he 
should come, I should not deigu to notice him " ; 
(4) as an equivalent of the subjunctive, in subordi- 
nate clauses, e.g., ''it is queer that he should go'' 
Uses (3) and (4) are much the same in force, and 
closely akin to them is the curious use of should in 
"whom should I see but Henry." 

Though should is a past tense, it will be noticed 
that it does not refer to past time except when used 
with the perfect infinitive, e.g., "I should have g07te." 
The first use (i) is that most appropriate to the root- 
meaning of the verb, which expresses obligation. 

EXERCISE 

In the following sentences distinguish from each 
other (i) indicative verb-phrases denoting obligation, 
(2) indicative verb-phrases representing the future, 
and (3) verb-phrases expressing or implying a condi- 
tion, and equivalent to the subjunctive. 

1 The distinction between should and ivould in subordinate clauses 
referring to the future is identical with that between shaU and zuiU. 
See § 107, note 2. 



1 36 English Grammar [chap, xii 

I. If anything should happen, I should never forgive myself. 
2. What should I do under such circumstances ! 3. He asked 
his father what he should do under such circumstances. 4. He 
was afraid that he should be punished. 5. Why should you 
suspect me? 6. I should indeed be surprised. 7. I should 
think so. 8. It is not strange that it should have been attrib- 
uted to inspiration. 9. Art thou he that should come? 10. He 
knew who should betray him. 

111. Would. — Verb-phrases formed by would ?in^ 
an infinitive may be used in four ways : (i) to denote 
determination or habitual action, as in *' however, he 
would do nothing of the sort"; (2) to represent the 
future tense in a subordinate clause, as in " the lieu- 
tenant reported that the infantry woidd ma^xh at 
once," i.e.^ he reported, *^the infantry will march at 
once"; (3) as an equivalent of the subjunctive, to 
imply or express a condition, as in {a) *'if he wo?ild 
only come, his friends zvoidd welcome him " ; and 
(4) as an equivalent of the subjunctive, to express a 
wish, and in subordinate clauses, e.g.^ " would that he 
were here," *' I hoped that he zvould corned In (3) 
the first woidd implies a condition ; the second 
would expresses a condition.^ 

^ The difference between should and would in conditions may be ex- 
pressed as follows : (i) in z/ clauses, ivo-uld denotes inclination, should 
a vague futurity; (2) in the conclusion, the same holds good of the 
first person. In the second and third persons ivould only is used; 
should would denote not condition but obligation. The following 
sentences are illustrative : (i) " if I should go, he would follow," '^ if I 
w^w/</ consent, he would agree " ; (2) *' I would not believe him," i.e., 
my inclination would be not to believe him; ''I should not believe 
him," i.e., I should actually, whatever my inclinations were, not believe 
him. 



CHAP. XII] Auxiliary Verbs 137 

Would does not refer to past time except when 
used with the perfect infinitive, e.g., '' I would have 
do7ie so, if it had been possible." 

EXERCISE 

Distinguish indicative verb-phrases (i) indicating 
habitual action or determination, or (2) standing for 
the future tense, from (3) those expressing or imply- 
ing a condition and equivalent to the subjunctive. 

I. At such times he would merely smile without replying. 
2. If you w^ere to ask me, I would not tell you, 3. He had no 
idea that they w^ould let him go. 4. Under no circumstances 
would they consent. 5. The soldiers would not believe that 
their officers would betray them. 

112. Might. — Verb-phrases composed of might and 
the infinitive follow closely the uses of may (§ 108). 
They denote: {\) permission, in past time, as in ''I 
asked if I might not go'' ; {2) possibility, '3,'^ in ''his 
title might be disputed'' ;^ (3) in slightly formal lan- 
guage, they express imcertainty , in past time, with 
respect to the occurrence of a future event, as in '' I 
hoped that he might a^^rive safely." Here the verb- 
phrase is equivalent to a subjunctive. 

113. Could. — Verb-phrases formed by could and 
an infinitive are used to denote ability or possibility 
(see can, § 109), with an implied condition, as in ''I 
coitld go," i.e., if I wanted to. Coidd may also be 
used in a conditional clause, e.g., ''if he could see me 

^ The distinction between 7night and could is analogous to that 
between may and can. See § 109, note I. 



138 English Grammar [chap, xii 

now, I should be happy," where could implies that 
the condition cannot be fulfilled (§ 178). In both 
uses the verb-phrase is equivalent to a subjunctive. 

EXERCISE 

I. Of the verb-phrases introduced % might dis- 
tinguish (i) those indicating permission or (2) pos- 
sibility, from (3) those that express uncertainty and 
are equivalent to the subjunctive. 

I. They feared that he might have been carried off by the 
gypsies. 2. Fearing that he might discover the plot, I sent him 
away. 3. He might still do so. 4. He humbly petitioned that 
he might go. 

II. Of the verb-phrases introduced by cotdd Ai^- 
tinguish (i) those indicating ability or possibility 
from (2) those expressing or implying a condition 
and equivalent to the subjunctive. 

I. If I could only see him again! 2. I could weep for shame. 
3. I could not believe my eyes. 4. I could be happy, if I could 
believe him. 

114. Verbals. — The term verbal is applied to in- 
finitives and participles, to distinguish them from the 
other parts of the verb, which have the power of 
asserting or stating. As we have seen, the infinitive 
is a verb-noun, the participle a verb-adjective. The 
infinitive is of two kinds, simple and participial. The 
simple infinitive has the form of the root of the verb, 
i.e.y that part which remains when all the inflectional 
endings are removed, e.g., love. Sometimes it is pre- 
ceded by the preposition to, which is called the sign 



CHAP. XII] Verbals 139 

of the infinitive. The participial infinitive is identi- 
cal in form with the participle, which ends in ing. 
Verbals may be active or passive in voice and present 
or perfect in tense. As the infinitive is practically a 
noun and the participle an adjective, neither can be 
expected to indicate tense accurately. In '' I expected 
to go,'' and in '' seeing \M\^, I rushed out," for instance, 
the so-called present infinitive and present participle 
are used with verbs in the past tense. Indeed, a 
present verbal merely indicates an incomplete, and a 
perfect a complete action, without respect to time. 

115. To with the Infinitive. — In Old Enghsh the 
simple infi.nitive was used in the dative case, pre- 
ceded by the preposition to, generally to indicate 
purpose ; and it has gradually come about that the 
infinitive with to is much more common than that 
without it. To is, however, not found after the 
auxiliary verbs shall, will, may, caii, do, after the 
verb-phrases had better, had rather, and in other mis- 
cellaneous instances.^ 

116. The Infinitive as the Subject. — As a noun, the 
infinitive, whether simple or participial, may be used 
as the subject of a verb or as a predicate nominative 
after be or similar verbs (§ 90), e.g., '^ to sleep 
soundly is a great delight," ''sleeping does more 

1 ^^ For to do so and so " is a survival in vulgar or dialectic English 
of an old usage, now obsolete in literary English, e.g., "and all 
countries came into Egypt to Joseph for to buy corn." — Genesis 
xli. 57. It indicates purpose. For intensifies to, and may be regarded 
as forming a part of the sign of the infinitive. 



140 English Grammar [chap, xii 

than medicine," ^' to have slept well was the founda- 
tion of his day's work," ^'having slept well meant a 
great deal to him," ''all I care for is to sleep well." 
It may serve as the grammatical subject of the verb 
(compare § 66), when the logical subject is an in- 
finitive, eg., " it is good to sleep,'' i.e., to s/leep is good. 
It should be noticed that frequently not the infinitive, 
but an infinitive-phrase is the subject of the verb, as 
in ^'seeing the trttth is the first step." 

117. The Infinitive as the Object of a Verb. — The in- 
finitive may also be used as the object of a verb, eg., 
''I hate to travel,'' ''I hate travelling," ''I hope to 
have finished vcvj work by-Saturday," " I regret having 
spoken so frankly." Historically, this is the construc- 
tion of simple infinitives with the auxiliary verbs ; 
e.g., in '' I will sleep," sleep is the direct object of the 
verb will, meaning '' I am determined or inclined." 

118. The Infinitive after a Preposition. — The infini- 
tive may also be in the objective case after a prepo- 
sition, e.g., ''I am tired of waiting," ''I was angry 
at being slighted," '' I was about to go," '' I was about 
going when the message came." 

119. The Complementary Infinitive. — The simple 
infinitive may also be used, in a variety of idiomatic 
or peculiar constructions, to fill out or complete the 
meaning of nouns, adjectives, verbs, and adverbs, 
e.g., {a) ''I was fool enough to believe him," {b) ''he 
was too wise to answer," (<f) "I have much to do," 
id) "come to see me," {e) "house to let." In some 



CHAP, xtt] Verbals 141 

cases falling under this head the infinitive denotes 
purpose, as in the original construction of to with the 
dative form of the infinitive. See examples (<:), {d)^ 
and (^). In most other cases it is equivalent to 
an adverbial objective or objective of specification 
(§§ 58 and 134), e.g., '' I was a fool to go," that is, I 
was a fool in respect to going. 

120. The Possessive with the Infinitive. — As a noun, 
the participial infinitive may have attached to it a noun 
or pronoun in the possessive case, e.g., ^^ I was sur- 
prised at Johiis being absent," '' I have no faith in 
his keeping his promise." (Compare page 144, note i.) 

121. The Object of the Infinitive. — As the infinitive 
has some of the functions of the verb, as well as 
those of the noun, it may take an object, e.g., '' I am 
afraid of his seeing me,'' '' to believe /lim one must 
have a good deal of faith." 

122. The Subject of the Infinitive. — In such con- 
structions as ^* I believed /lim to be honest," *^ I 
ordered it to be sent home," ^^ I saw J^o/in take the 
train," /ii7n, it, ^xidjokn are obviously in the objective 
case. Nouns and pronouns in such constructions are, 
however, usually spoken of as being the subjects of 
the accompanying infinitives, for the instances given 
are equivalent to '' I believed that he was honest,'' '' I 
ordered that it should be sent home," ''I saw that 
John took the train," where the two pronouns and 
the noun are the subjects of the verbs. It should be 
noticed that to be thus takes after it, not a predicate- 



142 English Grammar [chap, xii 

nominative, but a predicate-objective, e.g., " I did not 
believe it to be himT In such expressions as *4t is 
proper for him to do so," to do is the logical subject 
of is. Him is objective, with/^r; not the subject of 
to do. 

EXERCISE ^ 

[In parsing an infinitive we should state (i) whether it is 
simple or participial, and (2) what its construction is, i.e,^ nomi- 
native or objective, with the reason. If it has a subject, that fact 
should also be stated.] 

Parse the infinitives in the following sentences and 
point out their objects, when such exist. 

I. It is best to understand the whole matter before acting. 
2. It is wiser for us to make the attempt alone. 3. I dare say 
that you are right. 4. You need not be afraid. 5. I prefer to 
walk. 6. I will not have you question me. 7. Tell him to look 
to it. 8. Didn't you hear me say so? 9. I knew him to be a 
fraud. 10. It is pleasant to see one's name in print. 11. To be 
good is to be happy. 12. I do not seem to understand you. 
13. I swore never to reveal the hiding place. 14. I am sorry to 
contradict you. 15. I begin to understand you. 16. I should 
hate to have everybody know it. 17. Let me go ; I have not 
long to live. 18. What is to be done? 19. He was born to 
command. 20. Be sure to come. 21. He had the presumption 
to refuse my request. 22. I prefer returning. 23. I remember 
walking over that same path. 24. Will treating people in that 
fashion do any good? 25. I am not in favor of keeping it. 
26. I don't wonder at people's admiring him. 27. In conse- 
quence of its being a holiday, we made additional prepara- 
tions. 

123. Words Participial only in Form. — Many words 
participial in form have no participial force and must 
be classed as pure adjectives, e.g,^ *^ a barefooted \)oy^'' 



CHAP, xii] Verbals 143 

''?i forlorn hope," ""s.aLnning\x\<zVy' '' 2, drtinkeii man." ^ 
Even in '' an interesting story," "" a charming ^ovcv2.xv,'' 
it is doubtful whether the itahcized words retain 
enough of the force of the verbs interest and charm 
to make it necessary for us to classify them as parti- 
ciples rather than as adjectives. 

124. Attributive Participles. — Participles may be 
used attributively (§ 78), still retaining their verbal 
force, e.g., "an inviting sight," ''a loving child," ''a 
lost opportunity." In this sense a participle is equiva- 
lent to a relative clause, e.g., a sight that invites, a 
child who loves, an opportunity that is lost. 

125. Predicate Participles. — Participles may, as we 
have seen, be used in a predicate position (§ 78), in 
combination with the verb be, to form the passive 
voice (§ 102) and progressive verb-phrases (§ 105), 
e.g., "I am loved,'' "I am loving'' "^ They may also 
be used in an adverbial relation, modifying a verb, as 

1 Participles of some verbs have two forms, one of which preserves 
the original ending in (^);/, e.g., drunk, drunken; rotted, rotten. 
When this is the case, the form in (<?)?? is generally used only as an 
adjective. 

2 Such expressions as " the house is building,^'' common in eighteenth 
century literature and not yet obsolete, are equivalent to the progressive 
form of the passive, e.g., " the house is being built^^^ and were the 
regular forms before the participle being and the resulting form of the 
progressive passive came into use. The form in i^ig, in " the house is 
building,'''' is historically, however, not the participle, but the parti- 
cipial infinitive; for the expression originally was "the house is i7i 
building,'''' which was weakened to a-buildijig and then to buildijig. 
A in "he has gone a-fishing^'' is then a weakened form of the preposi- 
tion, z.x\^ fishing v^ the participial infinitive. 



144 English G7'a7nmar [chap, xii 

in **he came rushmg down the hill," where rushmg 
does not describe he so much as it indicates the way 
in which the action was performed. Participles may 
also be used in the predicate position with the object 
of a verb, e,g,^ '' I saw him climbing the hill." Here 
climbing is a genuine verb-adjective (§ 114) in that it 
describes him as well as represents an action.^ 

126. Appositive Participles. — The chief use of the 
participle, however, is what may be loosely called 
apposition (§ 78), i.e.^ the construction in which the 
participle stands beside the word it limits without 
being in an attributive or predicate relation to it, e.g,, 
^^ seeing the sunshine, I threw open the window," 
" he urged on his men, already asstcred of victory." 

127. Absolute Participles. — Participles are also 
used in what may be called an absolute construction,^ 
that is, a construction that has no connection with the 
rest of the sentence, — a parenthetical expression, 
so to speak, which could be omitted without altering 

1 The close resemblance should be noticed between («) " I saw 
him climbing^''^ (J?) "I saw his climbing^'' (<:) "I saw him cliiiih^^^ and 
the colloquial expressions (^) '* I saw him a-clitubing the hill," and 
{e) " a-climbing of the hill." In {a) the word ending in i7ig is a 
participle; in ((^), a noun or a participial infinitive; in (^), the simple 
infinitive; and in {d) and (^) the participial infinitive. After a prepo- 
sition the participle cannot properly be used, e.g., we do not say, " I 
see no use in hi7?i doing it," but "I see no use in his ^<^z;/^ (parti- 
cipial infinitive) it." In other words, the noun or pronoun must be in 
the possessive, not the objective. The objective is, however, sometimes 
found now in literary English in such expressions, and it was still 
more common in the English of several generations ago, e.g., " without 
a shilling being spent among them," " he insisted on the match being 
deferred.'''' ^ Compare the Latin ablative absolute. 



CHAP. XII] Verbals 145 

the relation that any other parts of the sentence 
might bear to each other: e.g., ''this done and our 
work completed, we returned quietly home;" ''the 
day being dark and rainy, we gave up the attempt." ^ 

EXERCISE 

[In parsing a participle, state (i) its tense and mood, (2) from 
what verb it is formed, (3) whether its use is attributive, predi- 
cate, oppositive, or absolute, and (4) w^hat noun (or equivalent 
of a noun) it modifies.] 

Parse the participles in the following sentences : 

I. He had a harsh, grating voice. 2. Here are letters an- 
nouncing his return. 3. While talking,^ he managed to secrete 
the letter. 4. I saw the storm approaching. 5. The rain came 
pouring down in torrents. 6. There was nothing striking about 
him. 7. She played a soothing melody, and then, sighing, arose 
from the instrument. 8. Being occupied with important matters, 
he had no leisure to see us. 9. The unbelieving, unsympathetic 
man w^ould do nothing to relieve the distress of the poor and 
suffering. 10. Our guest offering his assistance, he w^as accepted 
among the number. 11. It being already dark, we halted for 
the night. 

128. Classification of Words in ing, — Words in ing 
are (i) participial infinitives, (2) participles, (3) adjec- 
tives, or nouns. ^ A few prepositions also end in ing, 

1 The noun or pronoun accompanying the participle we class as a 
nominative absolute (§ 55). Historically it is a dative, and we occa- 
sionally find constructions, mostly in literature previous to that of this 
century, in which the dative or objective case is preserved. 

2 Words necessary to the completeness of the grammatical construc- 
tion must be supplied. 

^ E.g., " these sayings have been long preserved." On the other 
hand, " in the saying of prayers and tolling of bells," the italicized 
words have something of the force of verbs, and may be classed as 
participial infinitives. 



146 English G7'amrnar [chap, xii 

e.g.^ excepting^ diiring^ notwithstanding. Whenever 
a word in i7zg has not the force of a verb or a prepo- 
sition, it should be classed either as an adjective 
or as a noun. 

EXERCISE 

Parse the words ending in i7ig. 

I. I am going fishing. 2. It was a charming sight. 3. Talk- 
ing of bears, here is a story for you. 4. Assuming what he says 
to be true, the pohceman^s testimony must still be accepted. 
5. I found him reading. 6. He was annoyed at my going home 
so early. 7. Be still, sad heart, and cease repining. 8. His 
dying words wxre these. 9. I was awakened by the shouting of 
the men. 10. Grim forebodings filled my mind. 11. I am far 
from assenting to his proposition. 12. You hurt my feelings. 
13. I have a feeling that you may be right. 14. Feeling sure 
that it is so does not make it so. 



CHAP. XIII] Adverbs 147 



CHAPTER XIII 

ADVERBS 

129. Uses OF Adverbs. — 130. Kinds of Adverbs. — 131. Demon- 
strative Adverbs. — 132. Interrogative Adverbs and Rela- 
tive Adverbs. — 133. The Adverbs As, So, Than, and The,— 
134. The Adverbial Objective. — 135. The Introductory 
Adverb 77^^;^. — 136. The Form of Adverbs. —137. The Com- 
parison OF Adverbs. — 138. Adverb-Phrases and Relative 
Adverb Clauses. 

129. Uses of Adverbs. — We have seen how an 
adjective limits or modifies a noun by stating a 
quality or characteristic belonging to it. In a simi- 
lar way adverbs are used to modify adjectives, verbs, 
and other adverbs, as in ^^a terribly hot day," '^he 
swam out,'' *^the work was very beautifully done." 
Here the adverbs terribly, out, and very modify the 
meaning of the adjective Jiot, the verb swam, and 
the adverb beautifully, by showing the extent to 
which the day was hot, the direction in which he 
swam, and the degree to which the work was beau- 
tifully done.^ Adverbs may also modify preposi- 

1 It is sometimes said that adverbs modify nouns, as in *' he was 
fully master of the situation." But here fully may properly be taken 
as limiting zvas, showing the degree to which the assertion is true. In 
"the above instance," above is an adjective, not an adverb. "The 
instance above " is a contracted expression for " the instance given 
above." Such phrases as "the then governor," "an <^/w^^^ certainty " 
are usually regarded as incorrect. If they are accepted, the italicized 
words are to be regarded as adjectives. 



148 English Grammar [chap, xm 

tions, as in ''he read sti^aight through the letter,'' 
where straight has logically a closer connection with 
through than with read. They may also modify 
phrases or groups of words, as in ''thoroughly ill at 

ease,'' or even whole clauses or sentences (§ 130, 6). 

i 
130. Kinds of Adverbs. — Adverbs may indicate 
(i) manner, as wildly, sweetly, likewise, thus, so ;^ 
(2) place or direction, as here, ' there, before, behind, 
hither ;'^ (3) time, as soon, ever, never; (4) number, 
quantity, or degree, as twice, much, qtdte. Adverbs 
may also be (5) interrogative,^ as why, wherefore, 
how, whence ; or they may be (6) general, i.e., of 
such a force that they affect the character of the 
statement as a whole, or indicate its relation to other 
statements. Of this sort are the affirmative adverbs 
perhaps, ijideed, certainly, and the causal adverbs 
hence, therefore.^ E.g., " indeed, the facts point to 
a different conclusion," '' ce^'tainly you are in the 
wrong," ^ "the facts may, therefore, be regarded as 

1 So is sometimes equivalent to a predicate adjective or nominative, 
as in " I feel well and I look so {i.e., well)," "I told you so.^'' 

2 Hither and thither, when they refer to places, indicate motion 
toward a place; hence and thence, motion from a place; e.g., *' come 
hither,^'' "go thither again," "get thee hence,^^ "in a twelvemonth 
they departed thenceP Cf. whether and zvhence. But all these words 
are nearly obsolete in ordinary writing and conversation. The unneces- 
sary forms from hence, from thence, from zuhence, are also sometimes 
found, but are considered to be of doubtful correctness. 

^ See also § 132. 

* Some authorities call these conjunctions. 

^ Compare with "you are certainly wrong," where certainly modi- 
fies are. 



CHAP. XIII] Adverbs 149 

substantiated." The responsive words yes and no 
are also usually classed as adverbs, though in reality 
they are condensed sentences. 

EXERCISE 

[In parsing an adverb it is necessary only to state what it 
modifies, except under circumstances which will be explained 
later.] 

Parse the adverbs in the following sentences : — 

I. He still stood there, moving his fingers uneasily. 
2. Strangely Marner^s face and figure shrank. 3. The frost 
pressed cruelly on the grass. 4. Somehow I do not understand 
you. 5. First I must attend to the horses. 6. Forthwith he 
departed. 7. Sometimes I am lonely. 8. Henceforth I wdll 
have naught to do with you. 9. You may tell me, though, 
what you meant by steering eastward. 10. Stand from under. 
II. How could it be otherwise {i.e.^ in any other way] ? 12. He 
ran hither and thither. 13. It was then^ that I recognized the 
danger. 14. What, then, Avill you do? 15. Do you agree or 
not?- 16. I could go no further. 17. His second thought was 
no less rash. 18. He lives over yonder. 19. It cut clear through 
the flesh. 20. I can find him nowhere. 21. He must be some- 
where near. 22. Here were kept the village records. 23. I 
must find some one else. 24. He must be somew^here else. 

25. It is, indeed, hard to know the false from the true. 

26. What you say, therefore, will not be used against you. 

27. Now^adays we must be on our guard. 28. Nearly all his 
time was probably spent in idleness. 29. Are you qurteTested? 
Yes, quite. 30. I was altogether at a loss. 31. He is in pre- 
cisely the same circumstances. 32. The man in front is the one 
I mean. 33. We were in the car behind. 34. In no country 
perhaps in the world is law^ so general a study. 35. Of course 
disputes, often, too, very bitter disputes, and much ill blood, will 
arise. 36. Whereabouts do you live? 37. How do you know? 

1 Distinguish between the force oi then in 13 and 14. 

2 Certain words are understood. 



150 Efiglish Grammar [chap, xm 

38. I asked you why you thought so. 39. A reader seldom 
peruses a book with pleasure till he knows whether the writer 
be a man or a woman. 

131. Demonstrative Adverbs. — The pupil will be 
aided in understanding the following sections by 
observing that certain adverbs have a demonstrative 
force, e,g.^ hither^ thither, here, thei^e, hejice, thence, 
then, thtis. They are derived from the old English 
pronouns, and may be regarded as expressing ad- 
verbially the same ideas as this and that. Compare 
^*I was here, and he was there'' with '^ I believe this, 
and he believes that.'' 

132. Interrogative Adverbs and Relative Adverbs. — 

Whether, zvhethersoever, zvhence, wherefore, why, and 
how, are interrogative adverbs, and are used in 
both direct and indirect questions, e.g., ''how do you 
do .^ " '' I cannot understand how you endure so much." 

Where and when, and their compounds, are sometimes 
interrogative adverbs, e.g., ''where are you going .^ " 
''I did not ask zvhen he went." In such construc- 
tions, however, as ''I left him where he lay," ''I saw 
him when I arrived," they may be classed either as 
conjunctions (§ 148) or as relative adverbs. The 
close analogy between these constructions and those 
in which relative pronouns are employed, leads us to 
classify them as relative adverbs. A demonstrative 
adverb sometimes serves as the antecedent of a rela- 
tive adverb, e.g., " I left him lying there where he fell." 

133. The Adverbs As, So, Than, and The. — After the 
adjective such, as is a relative pronoun (§ 73). As 



CHAP, xiii] Adverbs 151 

(originally, also, ''quite so") may also be a relative 
adverb, having as its antecedent a demonstrative 
adverb as ; e.g., ''he is as tall as I am," i.e., he is tall 
in that degree in which I am tall. Sometimes the 
antecedent of the relative adverb as is the demon- 
strative adverb so, e.g., ''as two is to four, so is four 
to eight," i.e., in the degree in which two is to four, 
in that degree four is to eight. Sometimes the ante- 
cedent so is omitted, e.g., " I respect him [so] as [I 
respect] a father." Sometimics the antecedent as or 
so is expressed and the relative a.s omitted, e.g., "he 
is as tall but not so heavy \_as some one else is]." 

Than ^ (akin in origin to the demonstrative pronoun 
that) is a relative adverb, the old meaning of which 
was " at which time " or " when." " I am tajler tlian 
he is," thus originally meant, "when he is tall, I am 
taller." 

The, in such constructions as '' tlie more, the better," 
is not the article, but a weakened form of " that." Just 
as that is both a relative and a demonstrative pronoun, 
so the is both a relative and a demonstrative adjective. 
"The more, the better" thus means, "to the degree 
in which it is more, to that degree it is better." 

^ The subordinate clause introduced hy than is frequently abbreviated 
to a single word, e.g.^ "he is taller than I [am]," "you treated him 
better than [you did] me." In such cases there has always been a 
tendency to treat than as a preposition followed by the objective case, 
and to say " he is taller than ?;z<?." Grammarians and rhetoricians insist 
that this construction is incorrect, and it is now largely confined to 
colloquial or vulgar English, except in the almost obsolete expression 
than whom, which has been accepted, in spite of logic, as correct. 



152 English Grammar [chap, xiii 

134. The Adverbial Objective. — As we have already 
explained, the objective case (§ 58, 5) is frequently 
used with an adverbial force, as in " he struck him 
many times,'' ''I don't care a snap,'' ''it is only skin 
deep," ''he had scarcely walked a rod'' That, in 
the colloquial or vulgar "I wouldn't go' /^^/ far," is 
in the same construction. The adverbial objective 
of an indefinite or adjective pronoun (§§ ']6, yy) 
comes very close to being an adverb, e.g,, "it is all 
over with me." Certain adverbs {needs, tmawares, 
etc.) have their origin in a similar use of the pos- 
sessive case. 

135. The Introductory Adverb There. — There is often 
used as an introductory adverb, as in ^^ there was a 
man in our town." Here man is properly the sub- 
ject oi was. Its natural place in the sentence is 
taken by there. Compare the use of it as the gram- 
matical, as distinguished from the logical subject 
(§ 66, I). 

EXERCISE 

[Parse the adverbs. Interrogative and relative adverbs do 
not limit particular words. Interrogative adverbs introduce 
questions ; relative adverbs introduce dependent clauses. In 
parsing them it is necessary only to state (i) that they are inter- 
rogative or relative adverbs, and (2) what questions (direct or 
indirect) or what clauses they introduce. If a relative adverb 
has an antecedent expressed or clearly understood, that fact 
should also be stated.] 

Parse the adverbs in the following sentences : — 

I. Go where duty calls you. 2. The more I hear about it, the 
less I like it. 3. The branches swayed gently hither and thither. 



CHAP. XIII] A dverbs 153 

4. I have seen enough, ^ 5. This once I will forgive you. 
6. Several times before I have forgotten it. 7. He is go- 
ing home. 8. I can stand it no longer. 9. I am all tired 
out. 10. He is not much hurt. 11. lam not quite free yet. 

12. When I caught sight of him, he was greatly perplexed. 

13. I don't know how I shall bring it about. 14. Where there 
is mystery, there is danger. 15. Let there ^ be light. 16. I 
like him none the less for that. 17- I am not so sure about it. 
18. Thus he spoke. 19. As a citizen, he has his rights.^ 
20. We treated him as a rival. 21. Run as fast as [is] possible. 
22. Be so good as to help me.^ 23. I am not so strong as you. 
24. So far as I can see, you are safe. 25. As he had saved the 
state in time of war, so now he preserved it in time of peace. 
26. He looked as [he would have looked] if he had seen better 
days. 27. As yet ^ I have been successful. 28. I had had 
better fortune than you. 29. He hates no one more than me. 
30. There is nothing better than this. 31. Rather than he should 
fail, I would go myself to his aid. 32. It was no other than 
he. 33. He is no better; at least I cannot see that he is any 
better. 34. It serves him right. 35. Hand in hand, they came 
up the path. 36. Wherein does the difference lie ? 37. Where 
does this road lead to ? ^ 38. Somehow or other [how] I am 
not contented. 39. It will be much the worse for you. 40. I 
should like some more pudding. 41. I know whereof I speak. "^ 
42. He coughed while he was speaking. 

136. The Form of Adverbs. — Many adverbs end in 
ly^ that is, "like." Frequently, however, it is only 

^ See § 77. 

2 Compare with " let it be done." Parse it. 

^ That is, in the degree in which he is a citizen, in that degree he has 
rights. Here as is a relative adverb introducing the noun citizen^ 
which may be parsed as predicate nominative after is understood. 

* That is, be so good as you would be good in the point of help- 
ing me. 

^ That is, in so far as past time is concerned. 

^ A colloquial redundancy. 

"^ How would the sentence read if a relative pronoun were used? 



154 EfiglisJi Grammar [chap, xiii 

by its use that we can distinguish between an ad- 
verb and an adjective, preposition, or conjunction. 
E.g,, ''he rode /^i*/" (adverb), ''a fast (adjective) 
horse," ''he rode /;^" (adverb), "he sat in the 
wagon " (preposition).^ When an adverb has two 
forms, e.g.^ sloWy slowly^ qinck^ quickly^ scarce; scarcely^ 
clear^ clearly, the shorter form is sometimes most used 
colloquially {e.g., "come qiiicky" "go slow,'' "lie low''), 
sometimes confined to poetry or ^poetic prose {e.g., 
^' scaixe heard in the distance, the notes rang clear, 
though faint"). The termination ly is occasionally 
an adjective ending also; e.g., homely, jolly, kiiidly. 

137. The Comparison of Adverbs. — Many adverbs 
are capable of comparison (§ 82), which is almost 
invariably denoted by more {less) and most {least), 
A few monosyllabic adverbs, particularly those re- 
ferred to in the preceding section as having at times 
the force of adjectives, are compared also by inflec- 
tion; e.g., quicker and inore quickly. We may say 
"come qidcker" or "come more quickly." The 
former usage is the more colloquial. 

The following adverbs are compared irregularly : 
far, farther {further), farthest {furthest) ; ill {badly), 
worse, worst ; late, later, latest {last) ; little, less, least ; 
much, more, most; 7iear, 7iearer, nearest {next) ; well, 
better, best. The comparative adverb ratJier comes 
from the obsolete positive rathe ("early"). It has 
no superlative. 

1 For words which are now adverbs, now conjunctions, see § 151. 



CHAP. XIII] Adverbs 155 

138. Adverb-Phrases. — Our language is rich in 
adverb-phrases, such as at once, at all, in vain^ of 
old, one by one. These phrases generally consist of a 
preposition together with an adjective, adverb, or noun, 
or are based on an adverbial objective. They are fre- 
quently idiomatic in character and hard to analyze. / 
Adverb-clauses are introduced by relative adverbs 
or conjunctions. Those introduced by conjunctions 
we shall examine later (§ 186). All clauses intro- 
duced by relative adverbs are adverb-clauses, with 
the exception of some which are introduced by 
where. Where clauses may be (i) noun-clauses, e.g.^ 
** I will tell you where I stand'' {cf. I will tell you 
something); (2) adjective-clauses, e.g., ''the house 
where I lived is torn down" {cf. the house in which 
I lived); or (3) adverb-clauses, e.g., ^^ where yon go, 
I will go" {cf I will go there). 

EXERCISE 

I. Parse the adverbs in the following sentences. 
If an adverb is in the comparative or superlative de- 
gree, the fact should be stated. 

I. Come as quick as you can. 2. Speak louder. 3. The 
slower you work, the longer it will take. 4. His journeys abroad 
have been numerous. 5. May all tlie blessings of heaven above 
be on you. 6. The lark sang shrill, the cock he crew. 7. I 
scarce could trust my eyes. 8. High o'er my head, with threat- 
ening hand, the spectre shook his naked brand. 9. The moon 
shone bright ^ and cold.^ 10. Still 1 on the spot Lord Marmion 
stayed. 11. He stood next to me. 12. He came last. 13. I 
can go no further. 14. He is worse to-day. 15. I did not know 

he was so ill. 

1 Adjective or adverb? 



156 English Grammar [chap, xm 

II. In the following sentences, point out the 

clauses introduced by relative pronouns, and state 

whether they have the force of nouns, adjectives, or 

adverbs. 

I. And when the sunshine grew strong and lasting, so that 
the buttercups were thick in the meadows, Silas mjght be seen in 
the sunny midday, or in the late afternoon when the shadows 
were lengthening under the hedgerows, strolling out with un- 
covered head to carry Eppie beyond the Stone Pits to where the 
flowers grew, till they reached some favorite bank where he could 
sit down, while Eppie toddled to pluck the flowers, and made 
remarks to the winged things that murmured happily above the 
bright petals. 2. Even people whose lives have been made va- 
rious by learning sometimes find it hard to keep a fast hold on 
their habitual views of life, on their faith in the Invisible, — nay, 
on the sense that their past joys and sorrows are a real experi- 
ence, when they are suddenly transported to a new land, where 
the beings around them know nothing of their history, and share 
none of their ideas ; where their mother Earth shows another lap, 
and human life has other forms than those on w^hich their souls 
have been nourished. 3. But even their experience may hardly 
enable them thoroughly to imagine what was the effect on a 
simple weaver like Silas Marner, when he left his own country 
and people and came to settle in Raveloe. 4. Nothing could be 
more unlike his native town, set within sight of the widespread 
hillsides, than this low, .wooded region, where he felt hidden 
even from the heavens by the screening trees and hedgerows. 
5. There was nothing here, when he rose in the deep morning 
quiet and looked out on the d^wy brambles and rank tufted grass, 
that seemed to have any relation with that life centering in Lan- 
tern Yard, which had once been to him the altar place of high 
dispensations. 



CHAP. XIV] Prepositions 157 



CHAPTER XIV 

PREPOSITIONS 

139. Uses of Prepositions. — 140. Preposition- Phrases. — 
141. Prepositions Peculiar in Form or Use.— 142. Close 
Relation between Prepositions and Adverbs. — 143. Vari- 
ous Uses of Prepositions. — 144. Prepositional Adjective- 
Phrases.— 145. Prepositional Adverb-Phrases. 

139. Uses of Prepositions. — A preposition is a con- 
necting word that indicates a relation between a noun 
or pronoun and a word of some other sort. A noun 
or pronoun is thus made to limit or modify this 
word in a way indicated by the preposition. Thus, 
in *^he lived in hopes," hopes is connected with lived 
by the preposition in, which here denotes that the 
relation is one of manner (§ 130). (For the adverbial 
and adjectival force of limitation brought about in this 
way, see §§ 144, 145.) The connection indicated by 
a preposition may be with a noun, as in *^ a captain 
in the artillery " ; a pronoun, as in '' she of the golden 
locks"; an adjective, as in ^^ capable of anything"; 
or, more rarely, an adverb, as in ^^ precisely on time." 

A preposition is regularly followed by a noun 
("conquered by the szvord'') or a pronoun ("beloved 
by me''). But in certain idiomatic adverb-phrases 
(§ 138), a preposition may be followed by words that 
in other connections would be classed as adjectives 



158 English Grammar [chap, xiv 

{e.g.y ^*on high'')] as adverbs (**at once'")\ or even 
prepositions (''stand from tender''). These groups 
of words are called prepositional adverb-phrases, i.e.^ 
phrases which have the force of an adverb, and are 
formed by a preposition and its object. 

A preposition may also have as its objicct a prepo- 
sitional noun-phrase, i,e,, a phrase of similar forma- 
tion which has the force of a noun, e.g., '' they drove 
the enemy from behind the breastworks." Here the 
object of from is behind the breastworks, which is 
equivalent to a noun, but is a phrase formed by a 
preposition and its object. 

140. Preposition-Phrases. — Certain groups of words 
have the force of prepositions, e.g., in place of, as to, 
with regard to, out of, on board} 

141. Prepositions Peculiar in Form or Use. — Several 

words in ing are prepositions, e.g., saving, during, 
notwithstanding. But in the sense of save or except 
is usually regarded as a preposition, e.g., ''there is no 
one here but me." (Compare § 149.) The words like, 
near, nearer, nearest, next, nigh, in such constructions 
as "much like him," ";/^<^r me," are hard to classify. 
Historically they are adjectives, taking after them the 
dative case, and they may still be so classed. Their 
force, however, is precisely that of prepositions, and 
they could be classed as such, were it not for the 
anomaly that would be afforded by the comparative 
and superlative forms, which are appropriate for 

1 As in ** on boai^d a man-of-war." Compare ** this side the river." 



CHAP, xiv] Prepositions 159 

adjectives, but not for prepositions. It is perhaps best 
to call them prepositional adjectives, and to call the 
corresponding phrases like tcntOy near tOy etc., prepo- 
sition-phrases. 

142. Close Relation between Prepositions and Adverbs. 

— Prepositions originally indicated, in most instances, 
direction or situation, and are very closely akin to 
adverbs, as may be seen from the following illustra- 
tions : '' he stood ^7," '^ he stood by me " ; *' he stood 
near,' '^he stood /^^^r me." Compare also ''rushed 
in;' ''started off^' "well off^' "shut the door to;' 
with the corresponding prepositional uses of the same 
words. 

EXERCISE 

[In parsing prepositions, it is necessary only to state what 
words or groups of words they connect.] 

I. Parse the prepositions in the exercises on page 

156. 

II. Parse the prepositions in the following sen- 
tences : 

I. He turned eagerly to where he had seen her last. 2. I 
have no doubt of succeeding eventually. 3. There was nothing 
to do but submit. 4. I am tired of going a-fishing. 5. He 
had no objection, he said, except with regard to the rent. 6. I 
have hunted everywhere, from under the eaves to dow^n cellar. 
7. This is not a fit place to live in.^ 8. I don't know what you 
are talking about. 9. The plan I have been thinking of is this. 
10. That will give you something to think about. 11. But, pass- 
ing such degression o'er, suffice it that their route was laid across 
the furzy hills of Braid. 

1 To live is here a complementary infinitive, limiting place, hi may 
be treated as a part of the verb-phrase live in. It is then rather an 
adverb than a preposition. 



i6o - English Grammar [chap, xiv 

143. Various Uses of Prepositions. — Our language is 
remarkable for the many different forces which we 
give to the same preposition. Of, for example, may- 
be used in the following different ways : (i) in form- 
ing a phrase equivalent to the possessive, e,g,, ''the 
son of my brother " ; (2) with a partitiye meaning, 
''many of the people"; (3) to specify or refer, "he 
boasted of his crimes " ; (4) to compose an adjective- 
phrase, "a crown of gold" ; (5) to denote apposition, 
"the city of New York"; (6) to denote time, "of 
an evening " ; (7) to express agency, " beloved 
of all"; (8) to express origin, "born of poor but 
honest parents " ; (9) to express cause, "lay sick of a 
fever"; (10) as equivalent to from in various ways, 
"to rid him of trouble." A study of these different 
uses would be valuable and interesting, but this is 
not the place for it. Here we are concerned largely 
with the classification of words and the changes of 
form that are made necessary by relations between 
words. Systematic study of the origin and extent of 
slight differences of meaning the pupil must post- 
pone until he takes up historical grammar and rhet- 
oric. He should, however, be on the alert to notice 
the various forces of prepositions, and to broaden 
and enrich his own diction by their use. 

144. Prepositional Adjective-Phrases. — Prepositibnal 
phrases have sometimes the force of adjectives, 
e.g., "a primrose by the river s brim'' ; "a gentle- 
man of France'' ; "a friend at court" ; that is, a 



A I 



CHAP, xiv] Prepositions l6l 

river' S'brim primrose, a French gentleman, a court 
friend. 

145. Prepositional Adverb-Phrases. — Prepositional 
phrases may also have the force of adverbs, e.g,, ''he 
sat by the river,'' "I will not speak of France,' "he 
is at court'' 

EXERCISE 

In the following passage point out the prepositional 
phrases. Are they adjective-phrases or adverb- 
phrases 1 

" In the days when the spinning wheels hummed busily in the 
farmhouses — and even great ladies, clothed in silk and thread 
lace, had their toy spinning wheels of polished oak — there 
might be seen in districts far away among the lanes, or deep in 
the bosom of the hills, certain pallid, undersized men, who, by 
the side of the brawny country folk, looked like the remnants 
of a disinherited race. The shepherd's dog barked fiercely when 
one of these alien-looking men appeared on the upland, dark 
against the early winter sunset ; for what dog likes a figure bent 
under a heavy bag? and these pale men rarely stirred abroad 
without that mysterious burden. The shepherd himself, though 
he had good reason to beheve that the bag held nothing but 
flaxen thread, or else the long rolls of strong linen spun from 
that thread, was not quite sure that this trade of weaving, indis- 
pensable though it was, could be carried on entirely without the 
help of the Evil One. In that far-off time superstition clung 
easily round every person or thing that was at all unwonted, or 
even intermittent and occasional merely, like the visits of the 
peddler or the knife grinder. No one knew where wandering 
men had their homes or their origin ; and how was a man to 
be explained unless you at least knew somebody who knew his 
father and mother? To the peasants of old times, the world 
outside their own direct experience was a region of vagueness 
and mystery : to their untravelled thought a state of wandering 

M 



1 62 English Grammar [chap, xiv 

was a conception as dim as the winter life of the swallows that 
came back with the spring ; and even a settler, if he came from 
distant parts, hardly ever ceased to be viewed with a remnant of 
distrust, which w^ould have prevented any surprise if a long 
course of inoffensive conduct on his part had ended in the 
commission of a crime ; especially if he had any reputation for 
knowledge, or showed any skill in handicraft." 

— George Elic^ : Silas Marner. 



CHAP. XV] Conjunctions 163 



. CHAPTER XV 

CONJUNCTIONS 

146. Uses of Conjunctions. — 147. Coordinate Conjunctions. 
— 148. Subordinate Conjunctions. — 149. The Conjunctions 
But AND That, — 150. As.— \h\. CLOSE Relation between Con- 
junctions, Adverbs, and Prepositions.— 152. Interjections. 

146. Uses of Conjunctions. — Conjunctions are used 
(i) to connect statements, as in *^do not go 7 tn til yow 
hear from me"; and (2) to connect words, phrases, 
and clauses, as in ''bread aitd butter"; ''sloops of 
war and ships of the line" ; "that the troops might 
rest and that the people might rejoice with them, 
the victorious general ordered a halt." Only a few 
conjunctions are used for the second purpose. They 
will be enumerated under coordinate conjunctions. 
It will be observed that this function of conjunctions, 
that of connecting words, resembles that of the prep- 
osition (§ 139). There is this difference, however, 
that, as we have seen, a preposition indicates that 
one word limits another word, whereas a conjunction 
puts both words on an equality, indicating only that 
they are to be considered together {e.g.y ^^ hope and 
fear," "fight ^r run."). 

147. Coordinate Conjunctions. — Conjunctions are of 
two kinds, coordinate and subordinate. 



164 English Grammar [chap, xv 

Coordinate conjunctions connect statements of 
the same order, that is, statements that are gram- 
matically independent, e.g., " I go, bitt I return " ; 
''trust in God and keep your powder dry/' They 
are also used to connect words, phrases, and clauses, 
as indicated in the preceding section. { The simple 
coordinate conjunctions are and, btit, and or. There 
are also certain coordinate conjunctions called cor- 
relative (that is, ''having mutual relations"), which 
go in pairs, eg., either, or ; neither, nor ; both, and ; 
as zvell, as ; not only, but (also). The use of these 
correlative coordinate conjunctions will be seen from 
the following examples : " either death or liberty " ; 
^^ neither angels nor principalities"; ''both servant 
and master " ; " as well the cowardly as the brave " ; 
" not only men, bitt also women." 

When two or more words are used together with 
a conjunctive force, they may be called a conjunc- 
tion-phrase. Thus, not only and bitt also may be 
considered as correlative coordinate conjunction- 
phrases. 

148. Subordinate Conjunctions. — Subordinate con- 
junctions are those that connect statements of dif- 
ferent orders or values ; that is, that connect an 
independent or principal statement with a clause that 
limits it. Here the conjunction indicates the kind 
of limitation which the dependent or subordinate 
clause exerts upon the principal clause. Thus, in 
"I did not see him until he crossed the brook," the 



CHAP. XV] Conjimctions 165 

principal clause or statement is '' I did not see him." 
The conjunction tmtil introduces the subordinate 
clause, '' he crossed the brook," and indicates that it 
limits the principal clause in point of time, just as 
if it were an adverb, e.g.^ " I did not see him t/ien, 
or at that time'' 

Subordinate conjunctions and conjunction-phrases 
may indicate (i) time, e.g.^ after, as, as lo7ig as, 
as soon as, before, ere, since, tmtil ; ^ (2) cause, be- 
cause, for^ for that, since, wJiei^eas ; (3) condition, 
except, if, provided, unless, withont ; (4) concession, 
albeit, although, notwithstanding, though ; (5) purpose 
or result, lest, in order that, so that, that ; (6) com- 
parison, aSy than, 

EXERCISE 

[In parsing a conjunction, it is necessary only to state whether 
it is coordinate or subordinate, and to mention the words or 
groups of words which it connects.] 

Parse the conjunctions in the following passage: 

'' Now, however, no whit anticipating the obHvion which awaited 
their names and feats, the champions advanced through the lists, 

1 When, whence, where, while, which are frequently classed as sub- 
ordinate conjunctions of time, have been classed in this volume as 
relative adverbs (§ 132). 

2 For is usually classed as a coordinate conjunction, and because as a 
subordinate conjunction. But it is difficult to see how they differ much 
in force in such a sentence as '* he refused to answer the question be- 
cause {for) he knew that if he did so he was lost." For seems to the 
present writer a coordinate conjunction only when it opens a sentence, 
e.g., " He refused to answer the question, and indeed to respond to 
any inquiry whatsoever. For he knew that if he did so, he was lost." 
Here for connects two independent sentences and may properly be 
called coordinate. 



1 66 English Grammar [chap, xv 

restraining their fiery steeds, and compelling them to move 
slowly, while, at the same time, they exhibited their paces, to- 
gether with the grace and dexterity of the riders. As the pro- 
cession entered the lists, the sound of a wild Barbaric music was 
heard from behind the tents of the challengers, where the per- 
formers were concealed. It was of Eastern origin, having been 
brought from the Holy Land ; and the mixture of the cymbals 
and bells seemed to bid welcome at once, and flefiance, to the 
knights as they advanced. With the eyes of an immense con- 
course of spectators fixed upon them, the five knights advanced 
up the platform upon which the tents of the challengers stood, 
and there separating themselves, each touched slightly, and with 
the reverse of his lance, the shield of the antagonist to whom he 
wished to oppose himself. The lower orders of spectators in 
general — nay, many af the higher class, and it is even said 
several of the ladies, were rather disappointed at the champions 
choosing the arms of courtesy. For the same sort of persons 
who, in the present day, applaud most highly the deepest trage- 
dies, were then interested in a tournament exactly in proportion 
to the danger incurred by the champions engaged." 

— Scott : Ivajihoe, 

149. The Conjunctions Bui and Thai, — The conjunc- 
tions but and that have certain peculiarities. 

In *^no one was there but I [was there] " bttt is 
certainly a conjunction, though this usage is not 
particularly common. '^ He feared no one bict me" 
may, however, be interpreted as equivalent to {a) 
''he feared no one, but he feared me," or to {U) ''he 
feared no one except me." The meaning is the same 
in both instances, but according to (a) but is a con- 
junction; according to {h) a preposition. (Compare 

§ 141). 

In such expressions a§.J„' it never rains but it pours," 
but is a subordinate conjunction, equivalent to tliat uot. 



CHAP. XV] Conjunctions 167 

That is frequently used to introduce a noun-clause, 
e.g.^ ''\ believe that you zvere present. '' Here ''[that] 
you were present" is the direct object of ''I believe," 
precisely as words is in ''I believe your words'' In 
Shaksperian and older English this construction was 
very commonly employed, e.g.^ '' after that the king 
had burned the roll"; ''till that the nobles have of 
their puissance made a little taste." Here the prepo- 
sitions after and //// take as objects the noun-clauses 
introduced by that. In more modern English this 
usage has greatly decreased, but it is preserved in 
notwithstanding that, in that, save that, and a few 
similar phrases. As a rule, we now say, ''after 
the king had burnt the roll," ''till the nobles," 
etc., classing after and till as conjunctions, not as 
prepositions. Indeed, we often omit that when it is 
the only conjunctive word, e.g., "\ believe [that] you 
were there," " I say [that] you are not telling the 
truth." After the verb doubt, when accompanied by 
a negative, a noun-clause may be introduced by that, 
but that, sometimes but, and, less correctly, but what, 
e.g., " I do not doubt that \but that, biLt, or but what'\ 
he will come." All these connecting words are to 
be parsed in such constructions as subordinate con- 
junctions or conjunction-phrases. 

In such expressions as "it was then that I saw 
him," that has the force of when. 

150. As. — Like all relative adverbs, as serves the 
purpose of a conjunction in introducing a dependent 



1 68 English Grammar [chap, xv 

clause, and shows, in some uses, no traces of a 
relative force. As may be classified as a conjunction 
when it expresses cause or reason, or time, e.g.^ *' as 
you are already here, we can begin"; '''as I was 
walking down the street." As if should be parsed 
as a conjunction-phrase. The ellipsis i^ here some- 
what complicated, e.g., "" he looks as if he would eat 
me up," i.e., ''he looks as [he might look] if he 
would (wanted to) eat me up." As though is some- 
times used idiomatically in the same sense, though 
here it is usually impossible to supply the ellipsis, 
As^ too, is rarely- used in verse with the force of 
as if. Like is often vulgarly used with the force of 
as, e.g., ''he can't run like I can." For the proper 
use of like in this connection, as a preposition, see 

§ 141. 

151. Close Relation between Conjunctions, Adverbs, 
and Prepositions. — Many words, originally adverbs or 
prepositions, have come to be used as conjunctions, 
e.g., after, before, for, until. 

EXERCISE 

[In parsing a conjunction, state (i) whether it is coordinate 
or subordinate, and (2) what it connects. If it is correlative, 
the fact should also be stated.] 

I. Parse the adverbs and conjunctions in the fol- 
lowing sentences : 

I . And what, he asked a plainly dressed citizen, is the cause 
of this assembly? 2. He, and he alone, has done all this. 3. He 
sold wine and kept a table d^hote, occasionally also let bedrooms 
to travellers. 4. Besides, he was a shrewd philosopher. 5. Fur- 



CHAP, xv] Conjtmctions 169 

tber — and this is a point to be insisted on — his style in poetry 
and prose is subject to the same law. 6. Now travel, and 
foreign travel more particularly, restores to us in a great degree 
what we have lost. 7. Volatile he w^as, wild and somewhat 
rough, both in appearance and in speech. 8. It will be my 
endeavor to relate the history of the people as well as the history 
of the government. 9. Men eminent alike in peace and war. 
10. What with chagrin and confinement, what with bad diet, 
Wilhelmina sees herself reduced to a skeleton. 11. Great men 
are not always wise; neither do the aged understand judgment. 
12. My hair is gray, but not with years, nor gi'ew it white in a 
single night. 13. Neither a borrower nor a lender be. 14. He 
was neither shabby, nor insolent, nor churlish, nor ignorant. 
15. Stout Deloraine nor sighM, nor prayM, nor saint nor lady 
call'd to aid. 16. No, nor I either. 17. He was not only a 
heretic, but a traitor. 18. Recall those hasty words, or I am lost 
forever. 19. It signifies little whether the musician adapts 
verses to a rude tune, or whether the primitive poet falls naturally 
into a chant or song. 20. If you are faithful, your wages will be 
increased ; otherwise you shall not have a dollar more. 21 . They 
struggled fiercely for life, but struggled in vain. 22. Yes, but 
I will. 23. This is strange; yet stranger things have happened. 
24. Nevertheless they would not yield. 25. He was a wonder- 
ful man, though, that uncle of yours. 26. We do not mean, 
however, to represent him as a monster of wickedness. 27. Mean- 
time his own day of reckoning had arrived. 28. For the history 
of our country is one of constant progress. 29. When we are 
not at ease, we cannot be happy ; and therefore it is not surpris- 
ing that Waverley supposed that he disliked society. 30. Up, 
then, and be doing. 31. So, then, you agree ? 

II. Parse also the conjunctions in the following 
sentences, stating, if they are subordinate, whether 
the clauses they introduce express time, cause, con- 
dition, purpose, or result. 

I. When the daylight was admitted, he investigated further. 
2. The very insects, as they sipped the dew that gemmed the 



I/O English Grammar [chap, xv 

tender grass, joined in the joyous song. 3. But although Edward 
eagerly carried the gun for one season, yet, when practice had 
given him some dexterity, the pastime ceased to afford him 
amusement. 4. After things are in order, we will try again. 

5. Before you can be trusted, you must prove yourself worthy. 

6. Till I return, stay where you are. 7. Now that we are alone 
we can talk freely. 8. I am really afraid we cannot afford to 
trouble you often. 9. I am glad youVe hungry. ^10. Shall I tell 
you why? 11. The report is that you are quitting England. 
12. That he never will is sure. 13. We are taught that this is 
not the proper course. 14. The people boasted that they lived 
in a fertile land. 15. I dread lest an expedition begun in fear 
should end in repentance. 16. I cannot be persuaded but that 
marriage is one of the means of happiness. 17. I wonder if he 
will speak. 18. Whether you do or do not, my opinion of you 
will remain unchanged. 19. Whither I go, ye cannot come. 
20. And ye shall be left few in number, whereas ye were as the 
stars of the heaven for multitude. 21. The moment my business 
here is done, I must set out. 22. Once it is over, I shall feel 
better. 23. He rose politely as I entered. 24. As soon as I 
whistle, come down. 25. No sooner had I whistled than they 
came down. 26. While I was there, such a thing could not have 
happened. 27. Since my country calls me, I obey. 28. Since I 
saw you last I have done nothing. 29. I now feel satisfied that 
she referred to me. 30. I regret this the more inasmuch as I 
may not yield to any dame the palm of my liege lady^s beauty. 
31. If ye have tears, prepare to shed them now. 32. Provided 
the facts are right, I will vouch for your reasoning. 33. In case 
we are surprised, take to the woods. 34. We never met that we 
didn't fight and scratch. 35. I struck him so hard that he fell 
senseless. 36. I shifted my position so that I could see his face. 

152. Interjections. — With regard to the last part 
of speech, the interjection, not much needs to be' said 
in addition to the explanation of its character given 
in § 23. There are also interjection-phrases, e.g., 
heavens and earth! and interjection-clauses, e.g., Oh 



CHAP. XV] Conjunctions 171 

that I we7'e there ! For the inter] ectional or exclam- 
atory adjective, e.g., ''what nonsense you talk!" see 
§ 80. Nouns and pronouns in interjection-phrases 
or clauses are sometimes hard to parse. In (i) ^Svhat 
the deuce are you doing ! " (2) '' poor Henry I " 
(3) ''dear me I'' (4) ''woe is me !'' dence (i) may be 
considered as an adverbial objective, Hemy (2) as 
vocative, me (3) as vocative or adverbial objective; 
me (4) is, historically, a dative. 



1/2 English Grammar [chap, xvi 



CHAPTER XVI 

i 

SYNTAX 

153. Syntax. — 154. Nouns and Pronouns: the Nominative 
Case. — 155. Nouns and Pronouns: the Possessive Case. — 
156. Nouns and Pronouns: the Dative Case. — 157. Nouns 
and Pronouns: the Objective Case. — 158. Adjectives: In- 
flections. — 159. Predicate Adjectives. — 160. Appositjve 
Adjectives. — 161. Relative Pronouns —162. Adjective and 
Indefinite Pronouns. — 163. Subjects and Objects of Verbs. 

— 164. Verbs: Singular and Plural. — 165. Verbs: Person. 

— 166. Verbs: Tenses. — 167. The Subjunctive Mood. — 
168. The Subjunctive of ^^. — 169. Uses of the Present 
Subjunctive of ^^. — 170. Uses of the Past Subjunctive 
of .5^.-171. Subjunctive Mood of Other Verbs. — 
172. Substitutes for the Subjunctive. — 173. Participles 
AND Infinitives. — 174. Adverbs. — 175. Conjunctions. — 

176. Words Used as Several Different Parts of Speech. 

177. Order of Words. — 178. Conditional Sentences. 

153. Syntax. — Syntax (§ 3) means '' arrange- 
ment," and is the part of Grammar which deals with 
relations between words. We have already learned 
to distinguish between the different parts of speech ; 
and we have seen that several of them change their 
form or have a different force according as they are 
used in one connection or another. The verb, for 
example, changes its form in the present tense, 
according as its subject is singular or plural ; the 
noun has one force or another, according as it is 
used as the subject or object of a verb. We have, 



CHAP. XVI] Syntax 173 

therefore, already considered much of the subject- 
matter that belongs to Syntax. It remains for us, 
however, to discuss under what circumstances one 
form of a word is used rather than another, and to 
state the customs or laws that govern the relations 
of certain words in speaking and writing. 

154. Ifouns and Pronouns : the ITominative Case. — 

We have already (§ 55) noticed the use of the nomi- 
native as the subject of a verb, as the case of ad- 
dress, as used in the predicate, and as used abso- 
lutely. These complete the uses of the nominative 
case. Nouns or pronouns used in such constructions 
have invariably, in standard literary and colloquial 
.English, the form and force of the nominative, except 
in three sets of instances : 

1. After than in the phrase than whom (§ 133). 
Compare bntvn the sense of ^^ except" (§ 149). 

2. After the verb be^ in such familiar expressions 
as ''it is me^ With regard to this colloquial usage 
there are several things to be said, {a) The same 
causes that in the sixteenth century led to the sub- 
stitution of the objective you for the nominative ye^ 
tended to substitute me^ thee, tis, him, her, and the^n 
for the corresponding nominative forms. For more 
than a century there was great confusion in the use 
of the two sets of forms. Thee, in the usage of the 
Society of Friends of Quakers (§ 65), has come to be 
used as a nominative. The other objective forms, 
with the exception of me, now survive in their nom- 



1/4 English Gra7iiinar [chap, xvi 

inative use only as vulgarisms.^ {h) The phrase 
^*it is me'' has continued to be widely used, how- 
ever, in spite of the fact that grammarians and 
rhetoricians have, from the early part of the century 
until recently, insisted on regarding it as a vulgarism. 
There are two reasons for the vitality of^ the expres- 
sion : first, the phrase is so common that whatever 
form happened to be the favorite with the people 
would tend to impress itself strongly on the ear and 
the mind ; second, me bears, in form and sound, a 
closer analogy to he and she than / does, and so 
would seem more natural than I? {c) The present 
situation is as follows: ** It is ;;^^'' has become a 
stereotyped, idiomatic, colloquial expression, used 
without hesitation by the mass of the people, and 
shunned only by the fastidious. *^ It is /'' is, how- 
ever, likely to retain its place in literary English ^ as 
a more solemn or impressive expression, though not 
to the exclusion of the other phrase ; it is also ten- 
aciously preserved, even in speech, by those who 
have a strong feeling for consistency in grammatical 
forms. 

155. BTouns and Pronouns : the Possessive Case. — 

Several broad divisions of the meanings afforded by 
the possessive case are given in § 56. Only one 

1 See Lounsbury, History of the English Language (1894), pp. 272- 
275; Jespersen, Progress in Language^ Chapter vii ; Emerson, ^zV^^rj/ 
of the English Language^ p. 324. 

2 The expression "it is ;;2^ " is exactly analogous to the French 
** c'est ;;/^2." 

^ See Matthew xiv. 27. 



CHAP. XVI] Syntax 175 

use deserves particular comment. A set of expres- 
sions is rapidly growing in favor, in which a posses- 
sive is formed from nouns denoting inanimate objects. 
Until recently the possessive has been almost entirely 
confined to names of persons and animals, though it 
is true that we say '^a days work," ^^for appea^^ances' 
sake," and ^^the suns rays," and that in poetry or 
poetic prose we use such expressions as '^lifes de- 
cline," *^this morning s flowers," ''in winter s dearth." 
It is now common, however, to see in our journals such 
phrases as '' Boston's fire," '^India's famine," '' sngar^s 
rise," — phrases which seem to have their origin in a 
violent use of personification (§ 39). The practice 
is not to be commended. For a similar extension 
of the possessive whose, to cover the neuter gender, 
see § 71, I. 

156. Nouns and Pronouns : the Dative Case. — The 
only use of the dative case not already described 
(§ 57) is the so-called ''ethical" dative, or "dative 
of feeling," of the personal pronouns, indicating a 
person who may be supposed to be interested in the 
statement made, e.g., "the Hotspur of the north, he 
that kills me six or seven dozen of Scots at a break- 
fast" (Shakspere); "a terrible dragon of a woman 
. . . claps yo?c an iron cap on her head " (Carlyle). 
This usage is practically obsolete in modern English 
prose. 

It should be noticed that either the direct or the 
indirect object of an active verb may be made the 



I J^ English Grammar [chap, xvi 

subject of a passive verb. We say **they paid me 
my money'' and {a) ^'the m-oney was paid," or {b) **/ 
was paid." We may also say {c) "the money was 
paid me'' and (<^) ''/ was paid the money," In 
(d) 7noney is nominative ; in {p) I, In {c) money is 
nominative, as the subject of the verb,/ and me is 
dative; in {d^ I is nominative, and //^^'/^^j objective, 
or what is known as a retained object. 

157. IToiins and Pronouns : the Objective Case. — The 

chief uses of the objective have been already dis- 
cussed. (See §§ 58. and 134.) The only point that 
remains to be considered is that of the case that fol- 
lows verbs like m.ake^ edll, appoint, etc., which are 
sometimes called factitive (''making") verbs, and 
which take two objects, e.g,, ''they made him king," 
"ye call me chief." The first object is to be classed 
as a direct object, the second as a complementary 
object. In the passive this construction appears as 
" he was made king" " I am called chief." Here king 
and chief are sometimes parsed as retained comple- 
mentary objects (compare retained indirect and direct 
objects, § 156). But they are better treated as predi- 
cate nominatives; for, though they have the force of 
complements, they serve to complement the nomi- 
natives he and /, and are therefore predicate nomi- 
natives (^/. § 55, 3). 

EXERCISE 

Parse the nouns, pronouns, and noun-clauses in 
the following sentences: 



CHAP. XVI] Syntax i JJ 

I. Be thou, spirit fierce, my spirit! Be thou me, impetuous 
one !^ 2. Professor X, than whom there is no better authority 
on classical antiquities. 3. No one is here but me. 4. And 
was this not the Earl? 'Twas none but he. 5. He learned a 
lesson by tlmt. 6. He came from down east. 7. I taught him 
Greek. 8. His friends lent him money. 9. He was lent money 
by his friends. 10. Money was lent him by his friends. 1 1 . His 
enemies called him a coward. 12. He was called a coward by 
his enemies. 13. I have been told by my friends that I was 
rather too modest. 14. We have been taught that we cannot 
without danger suffer any breach of the constitution. 

158. Adjectives: Inflections. — The adjective has 
two inflections : (i) to express number, in the demon- 
strative adjectives this and that; (2) to express com- 
parison, in a great number of adjectives. With 
regard to both these arises a slight difficulty. 

(i) Sometimes in colloquial English, frequently in 
vulgar English, and from time to time in literary 
English (especially in that of the seventeenth and 
eighteenth centuries), we find these or tliose used wdth 
singular nouns i^e.g,^ ''these kind of men"), in direct 
contradiction to the ordinary usage, Avhich requires 
that these adjectives shall agree in number with the 
nouns they modify {e.g., ''these men," or "this kind 
of men "). The reason for this curious irregularity 
is said to be that in Old English the idiom was not 
''this kind of men," but ''this kind's men," and that 
in the confusion that resulted when, under French 
influence, the new phrase grew up with of, this-kind- 
of came to be regarded as a sort of adjective.^ The 

1 Shelley, Ode to the West Wind. 

2 See Kellner's Historical Outlines of English Syntax, pp. 103-108. 

N 



1 78 English Gram7nar [chap, xvi 

result was that this was popularly felt to modify men 
and thus became these. Whatever the process was, 
it is undoubtedly true that these kind^ these sort, etc., 
were long regarded as correct expressions {cf. '' these 
kind of knaves," King Lear , ii. 2, 107). They are 
now largely confined to colloquial and vulgar English. 
Another instance of lack of agreement is the infre- 
quent idiom '' this many summers," '' this ten years," 
— an idiomatic relic of the -period when this was a 
plural form.^ 

(2) Two peculiarities also occur in the use of the 
comparative and superlative inflections : first, the 
once common idiom, — now obsolete, except in vul- 
gar English, — of the double comparative and super- 
lative, e.g., *^the most unkindest cut of all" (Shak- 
spere), ''some more fitter place" (Shakspere), ''the 
most straitest sect of our religion" {Acts xxvi. 5); 
second, the tendency to use the superlative when 
referring to only two persons or objects, e,g.^ "that is 
the best of the two." The latter usage seems to be 
almost invariably due to carelessness, but it is so 
common, both in colloquial and literary English, and 
so natural, that it must usually be regarded as an 
innocent error. 

159. Predicate Adjectives. — Predicate adjectives are 
used (i) after the verb be, (2) after the so-called ''fac- 
titive " verbs (§ 157), (3) after verbs of incomplete 
meaning {eg., become, seem, look, etc. ; see § 90). 

See Lounsbury, p. 261; Emerson, p. 332. 



CHAP. XVI] Syntax 1 79 

Examples are : (i) '' she is /re'/^j/ " ; ^\2){a) *^ he made 
it clean,'' {b) ''it was made clean'' ; (3) "she looks 
pretty." In (i) and {z) P^^^^y is a predicate adjective, 
modifying the subject, she. In (2) clea^t is, in both 
instances, a predicate adjective. In (a) it modifies //, 
the object; in {b) it modifies //, the subject. 

Class (2) may also be extended so as to cover such 
usages as ''he stood there caht and 7'esohcte" "his 
words rang out clear and distinct." Here the italicized 
words may be regarded simply as predicate adjec- 
tives, modifying the subjects; but as their meaning 
affects the verbs as well as the subjects, and as 
the corresponding adverbs (clearlyy etc.) may be sub- 
stituted for them with only the slightest change in 
force, it is best to call them predicate adjectives with 
an adverbial force. The difference between an adjec- 
tive and an adverb in such constructions may be seen 
by comparing {c) "he came safe" and (<^)" he came 
safely." In (^) the emphasis is on the fact that "he" 
is safe ; in {d) on the fact that he " came " in a safe 
way. 

With the verbs in (3), it is sometimes difficult to 
determine whether we should logically use an adjec- 
tive or an adverb. Shall we say, for example, {a) 
"she \ooks> pretty" or "she loo^s prettily" ? (b) "it 
smells sweet" or "it smells sweetly" ? The rule is 
that when the verb is equivalent to a part of the verb 
be, the adjective is used; otherwise, the adverb. In 
both (a) and {b) is may be substituted for the verbs 
without changing the meaning to any great degree ; 



i8o English Grammar [chap, xvi 

therefore the adjectives are correct, not the adverbs. 
But we say ''he looked sotcrly at him," *'he felt 
coldly toward him," because here the verbs have a 
definite force of their own, can be appropriately- 
modified by adverbs, and are not equivalent merely 
to ''was " or "is." ^ 

160. Appositive Adjectives. — Adjectives, like parti- 
ciples, can be used appositively (§ 126) as well as 
attributively and predicately, e.g.^ ''clear as a bell, 
his voice rang out through the tumult." 

EXERCISE 

Parse the adverbs and adjectives in the following 
sentences : 

I. I am perfectly well. 2. Can you see well? 3. It was 
made well. 4. It is w^ll made. 5. The bread is good. 

6. When I am with that saintly old man, I feel good myself. 

7. I feel well enough. 8. You evidently feel bad^ to-day. 9. I 
felt clumsily about me for the rope. 10. Hope springs eternal in 
the human breast. 11. They drank deep. 12. The door was 
wide open. 13. I found the way easy. 14. I found the way 
easily. 

161. Relative Pronouns. — All important points re- 
garding the syntax of personal pronouns have already 
been discussed in connection with nouns. With 
regard to relative pronouns it only remains to notice 
the following minor matters : 

(i) Relatives are frequently omitted, eg.^ **this is 
the book {zvliicJi) I want." 

"^ Badly is often used here instead oibad^ perhaps because of a feel- 
ing that (^^^3^ would mean wicked. 



CHAP. XVl] 



Syntax 



i8i 



(2) When relatives are connected by a^id, but, or 
^r, it is better that the same pronoun should be used, 
e.g.y '' it was a friend zvhom I had always loved, but 
whom [not t/iat^ I had of late rarely seen." 

(3) And who, but who, or zvho, etc., are best used 
only when preceded by the same relative, e.g., ''he 
was a patriot who had been true to the cause, and 
who was now reaping his reward in his joy at its 
triumph," not ''a patriot true to the cause, and who 
was." The construction against w^hich the student 
is here warned, on rhetorical grounds, is, however, 
not infrequent in standard literary English. 



162. Adjective and Indefinite Pronouns. — Several 
points of syntax arise with regard to adjective and 
indefinite pronouns. 

(i) any is usually treated as plural, e.g., ''if any 
of them are there, tell them to come at once." In 
older English it was sometimes singular, e.g., "if 
[there is] any, speak, for him have I offended." 

(2) none, originally singular, is now treated as 
either singular or plural, e.g., "if there is 7ione [or 
are none'] here." 

(3) In referring to every one, every body, any, any 
one, any body, etc., the pronoun he or sJie is employed 
according to the context, e.g., " I shall be glad, gen- 
tlemen, to. help every one of you in whatever project 
he undertakes," or " I shall be glad, ladies ... in 
whatever project she undertakes." If the sex is not 
determined, we may use {a) the masculine singular 



1 82 English Grammar [chap, xvi 

pronoun, {b) both the mascuHne and the feminine 
singular pronouns, or {c) the plural pronoun, e,g., {a) 
"every one here may ask me any questions he 
chooseSy' (d) ^* he or she chooses^'' (c) they choose." 
(a) is the form preferred in literary English, unless 
it is necessary to throw emphasis on the fact that 
a statement applies equally well to both sexes {b). 
(e) is condemned by rhetoricians, and is, on the whole, 
to be avoided, but it is common in vulgar and col- 
loquial speech, and is not infrequent in literary 
English.^ 

(4) One may be referred to in two ways, by (a) 
one or by {b) he or she^ e.g.y '^(a) if one does such a 
thing, 07ie feels ashamed," or {b) ''he feels ashamed." 
{a) is preferred by rhetoricians, but {b) is common 
in literary and colloquial English and is growing in 
favor. 

(5) Either^ 7ieithery the former^ the latter , etc., are 
properly used when two persons or objects, but not 
more, are in question, e.g.^ '' neither {i.e. , of the two 
persons) moved a step." The principle is the same 
as that stated in § 158, 2. 

EXERCISE 

Justify or condemn the use of pronouns in the 
following sentences : 

I. You are the man I must see. 2. Yonder woman was the 
wife of a certain learned man, English by name, but who had 
dwelt long in Amsterdam (Hawthorne). 3. I will give, him 

1 See Bain, Higher English Graiufuar, p. 310, and Jespersen, Pi'og- 
ress in Language.^ pp. 27-30. 



CHAP, xvi] Syntax 183 

any he wants if he can use them in the condition they are in. 
4. None but the brave deserves [or deserve ?] the fair. 5. All 
that can possibly be done for any one who wants ears of wheat 
is to show them where to find grains of wheat. 6. No one but 
the children is invited, and everybody is to do just what they 
like. 7. Every one, of the girls started when she heard it. 
8. Every man and woman of you is free to do precisely what 
he pleases. 

163. Subjects and Objects of Verbs. — The subject of 
a verb is regularly in the nominative, and the object 
of a verb in the objective case. The only exceptions 
to the latter statement are such colloquial usages as 
''who did you see?" (§ 70). The nominative is also 
used in the predicate in literary and colloquial Eng- 
lish after the verbs be, become, etc. (§ 90), except in 
the phrase mentioned in § 154. For the objective 
as the subject of the infinitive, see § 122. For the 
objective in exclamatory phrases, see § 152. 

164. Verbs : Singular and Plural. — A singular verb 
is used when the subject is singular or may be con- 
veniently regarded as singular ; a plural verb, when 
the subject is plural or may conveniently be regarded 
as plural. 

A subject may be regarded as singular (i) when 
it is a collective noun, e.g., '^the committee 7nakes its 
report" ; (2) when it is the title of a book, e.g., '' his 
Lives of Celebrated Criminals is sold for four shil- 
lings " ; (3) when it is composed of two or more 
nouns, connected by and or unconnected, and of 
such a sort as to be considered as a single idea, 
e.g., *^his giant strength and lion bravery zvas long 



184 English Grammar [chap, xvi 

celebrated throughout the nation," ''his strength, his 
bravery, his fortitude, zvas praised alike by the nobles 
and commons"; (4) when it is composed of two 
-singular nouns connected by or, eg., ''he or his brother 
is coming." 

On the other hand, it is also perfectly consistent with 
good usage (i) to regard a collective noun as plural, 
when it is desired to emphasize the individuals that 
compose the group, e.g., ''the committee differ as to 
what report they shall make " ; (2) to regard as plural 
such a book title as Lives when the singular would 
be awkward or harsh in sound, e.g., ''Johnson's Lives 
were the best critical essays of the period " ; and (3) 
to regard all groups of nouns as plural when they are 
not obviously singular in intent, e.g., "his great 
strength and lion bravery were,'' etc., "his strength, 
his bravery, his fortitude, were,'' etc. Many doubtful 
cases occur, and great latitude of choice is allowed. 
The only safe guide is that of singular or plural 
meaning. It is believed that typical examples of 
all the chief doubtful cases are given in the following 
exercise. 

EXERCISE 

Account for the use of the singular or the plural 
verb in the following sentences : 

I. The fleet is under sealed orders. 2. The people is a unit 
on that question. 3. The people of these rude tribes are 
remarkable for their duplicity. 4. The majority is for him. 
5. The majority of his hearers were against him. 6. The 
Pleasures of Mejnojy was published in 1792. 7. Forty yards 
is a good distance. 8. A laggard in love and a dastard in war 



CHAP. XVI] Syntax 185 

was to wed the fair Ellen of brave Lochinvar. 9. What is the 
use and object of such buildings? 10. Upon this there was a 
fearful cry from heaven, and great claps of thunder. 11. Here 
also philosophical and religious learning go hand in hand. 
12. Bread and butter was his only luncheon. 13. All the 
furniture, the stock of shops, the machinery which could be found 
in the realm, was of less value than the property which some 
single parishes now contain. 14. Two and two is four. 15. The 
woman, wdth her four children, have escaped. 16. A great 
general, with three divisions of the army, is what we need. 
17. His bravery, as wxll as his honest}^ is in question. 18. Nei- 
ther the king nor either of his oldest sons are^ permitted to 
leave the island (Swift). 19. I resemble one of those animals 
that has ^ been forced from its forest to gratify human curiosity 
(Goldsmith). 20. It is only fire and the sword that will purify 
you. 21. The tumult and the shouting dies. 

165. Verbs: Person. — The inflection of the verb 
indicates person only in the present tense {e.g.y I love^ 
he loves), and in the present, perfect, and future 
tenses of ^<f (§§ 102 and 100). A difficulty in syntax 
sometimes arises when a verb in one of the tenses men- 
tioned has two subjects connected by or. E.g., '' either 
the captain or / start (or starts?) at daybreak," '' either 
yon or he is (or aref) mistaken." All such cases it 
is better to avoid by a different form of expression, 
e.g., '^ either \hQ captain or I mnst start at daybreak," 
*' either yo2L ai^e mistaken or he is'' If the difficulty 
cannot be avoided, it should be noticed that in general 
the verb agrees in person and number with the nearest 
subject, e.g., '^either / or yon are,'' ^^ either / or they 
are," ''either tJiey or lie is." The exceptions are 

1 Should be, by logic and by the best literary usage, is. 

2 Should be have. 



1 86 English Grammar [chap, xvi 

usually those in which / immediately precedes the 
verb, e.g., '' either j/ou or I a7^e mistaken," ''either 
/le or / zs mistaken." It would seem that here the 
ear rejects the form am, as too contradictory to the 
reference of the first pronoun. 

166. Verbs: Tenses. — With regard to lienses, it is 
only necessary to notice that in subordinate clauses 
following verbs in the past tense, only the past, 
perfect, and pluperfect tenses are used, e.g., (a) '' I 
/lope we ca7i reach the station before the storm /zas 
succeeded in overtaking us " ; {b) '' I hoped that we 
coidd reach the station before the storm had succeeded 
in overtaking us." The same is true with quotations 
introduced by such expressions as ''he said that."^ 

167. The Subjunctive Mood. — The subjunctive 
mood is that rare form of the verb-conjugation which 
represents a statement as a subject of doubt, uncer- 
tainty, or hope, not as a fact (§ 94). Just how rare 
this usage now is may be seen from the fact that in 
ten representative volumes by recent writers of high 
reputation, containing together approximately 900,000 
words, there are said to be only 269 instances of the 
subjunctive of the verb be, and only 15 instances of 
the subjunctive of any other verb than be? 

1 Quotations in the identical words of the speaker are sometimes 
called direct discourse; quotations introduced by " he says that," "he 
declared that," or their equivalent, indirect discourse. 

2 See The [London] Author, June and July, 1897. The statistics 
quoted of course refer only to instances in which the subjunctive differs 
from the indicative in form. 



CHAP. XVl] 



Syntax 



187 



168. The Subjunctive of Be. — The indicative and 
subjunctive of be are here placed side by side : 



Indicative. 

I am 

[thou art] 
he is 
we are 
you are 
they are 



Present. 

Subjunctive. 

I be 

[thou be] 
he be 
we be 
you be 
they be 



Past. 

Indicative. Subjunctive. 

I was I were 

[thou wast, wert] [thou wxrt] 

he was he were 

we were we were 

you w^re you were 

they were they were 



Indicative. 

I have 
[thou hast] 
he has 
we have 
you have 
thev have 



Perfect. 

Stibjtinctive. 

I have 
[thou have] 
he have 
we have 
you have 
they have 



Indicative. 

I had 

[thou hadst] 
he had 
we had 
you had 
they had 



Pluperfect. 

Subjunctive. 

I had 

[thou had] 
he had 
we had 
you had 
they had 



169. Uses of the Present Subjunctive of Be, — The 

present subjunctive of the verb be is used in three 
ways. In modern English the first is by far the 
most common. 

(i) To indicate that the statement is to be regarded 
as a supposition: e.g., ''if he be the rightful owner, 
the property shall be delivered to him " ; ''I will have 
my revenge on him though he be a king " ; ''no man 
can do these miracles that thou doest, except God be 
with himi " ; " whatever the cause be, I am determined 
to discover it." Notice what the force of the indica- 
tive would be, in each of these examples. 

(2) In a number of other subordinate clauses, intro- 
duced by that, lest, till, ivhether, etc., with much the 



1 88 English Grammar [chap, xvi 

same effect: e.g., ^'it seems best that the matter ^^ 
now brought to a close" ; ''heaven grant that we be 
the better for it ; " ''I tremble lest he be discovered " ; 
*' I cannot do anything till thou be come hither " ; '* I 
am at a loss to know whether this be so or not." 

(3) To indicate a wish: e.g., '' green ^<5^ the turf 
above his grave." 

The perfect subjunctive is used in the same ways, 
though it is far less common. 

170. Uses of the Past Subjunctive of Be. — The past 
subjunctive is used in three ways. In modern Eng- 
lish the first is by far the most common. 

(i) To indicate that the statement made is ''con- 
trary to fact/' or, in other words, that the supposition 
expressed is the opposite of the actual fact: e.g., "I 
wish it were in my power [but it is not] to help 
you"; "if I were you, I should do nothing of the 
sort." In constructions of this sort, however, the 
indicative may be used: e.g., "I wish it was in my 
power [but it is certainly not]." Here both the past 
indicative and the past subjunctive, it should be 
noticed, refer to present time. 

(2) In indirect discourse (see § 166), representing 
the use of the subjunctive be in direct discourse de- 
scribed in 169, I : e.g., " I declared that I should 
have my revenge on him, though he were a king " ; 
"no man could do this except God zvere with him." 
The indicative, however, is more common in this 
construction : e.g,, " though he ivas a king." 



CHAP. XVI] Syntax 189 

(3) Rarely, in subordinate clauses, following verbs 
in past tenses (see § 166), and representing the use 
of be described in 169, 2 : e.g., ''even those who had 
often seen him were in doubt whether this were truly 
the brave and graceful Monmouth." 

The pluperfect subjunctive is also used with the 
force of (i), but refers to past time, e.g., *'if I had 
been there" [but I was not]. 

EXERCISE 

Point out the subjunctives, state in what tenses 
they are found, and classify them under the headings 
indicated in §§ 169 and 170. 

I. Thy will be done. 2. Would that I were young again. 

3. It is not necessary that all the buildings be completed on time. 

4. See that a guard be ready at my call. 5. He succeeded in 
twisting him^ as it were,^ out of his place. 6. Haste, lest he be 
angry with thee. 7. Were it written in a thousand volumes. I 
would not believe it. 8. Although a woman be not actually in 
love, she seldom hears without a blush the name of a man whom 
she might love. 9. Thou couldest have no power at all against 
me except it were given thee from above. 10. Lose no moment 
ere Richelieu have the packet. 11. Instead of asking where his 
sisters were, he broke out into imprecations, declaring that, were 
he spared a year, every member of the hostile band should die 
by his hand. 

171. Subjunctive Mood of Other Verbs. — The present 
subjunctive of love, which may serve as a type of all 
other verbs, except auxiliaries, differs from the indica- 

1 Class under 170, i. The clause cannot be satisfactorily analyzed, 
and must be considered as an idiom. The force, however, is plain. 
It indicates that the word or group of words which it limits cannot he 
taken literally. 



IQO English Grammar [chap, xvi 

tive only in the form of the thh'd person singular, 
e.g., he love, instead of the indicative, he loves. The 
past subjunctive is precisely the same as the past 
indicative.^ The perfect and pluperfect subjunc- 
tives differ from the corresponding indicatives pre- 
cisely as in be {\ i68). For the subjunctives of 
auxiliaries, see § 172. 

These subjunctive forms may be used in all the 
ways mentioned in §§ 169, 170. They are, however, 
practically obsolete, except in the uses described in 
§ 169, (i) and (3), and § 170, (i); e.g., ^^and if he 
keep a stiff upper lip, never sJiow the white feather, 
and be always fair and square, no one need ask any 
more of him"; ''heaven help him"; ''if he had 
ventitred anything of the sort, he would not now be 
living." Of these forms the last is by far the most 
common. 

172. Substitutes for the Subjunctive. — In Old and 

Middle English the subjunctive was more sharply 
distinguished from the indicative in form, and was 
much more frequently used than at present.^ In 
Modern English the subjunctive has almost entirely 
disappeared, thanks to our instinctive desire for uni- 
formity in inflection. Its place has been to a great 
degree taken by the auxiliaries, shoidd, zvoidd, may, 

1 Both tenses also differ from the mdicatives in the obsolete forms 
of the second person singular, which are as follows : present subjunc- 
tive, thou love (indicative, lovest)-, past subjunctive, t/ioti /(?27^^/ (indic- 
ative, thou lovedst) . 

2 For the subjunctive in Shakspere, see Abbott's Shakespearian 
Grammar. 



CHAP, xvi] Syntax 191 

viigJit, could (§§ 107-113). These are substituted 
for the subjunctive as follows: (§ 169, i) ''If he 
should be the rightful owner," ''though he sho2Lld 
be a king," "except (unless) God sJionld be with 
him," "whatever the sense may be'' \ (169, 2) *^'that 
the matter shoiild be,'' etc., "that we may be," 
etc., "lest he may be," etc.; (169, 3), ";;^<^j/ the turf 
^^ green," etc.; (170, i*) "I wish [that] I might help 
you"; (170, 3) "whether this cottld be" etc. As 
auxiliary verbs omit s in the third person singular of 
the present, there is no way of distinguishing in form 
between the subjunctive and the indicative,^ and the 
fact that the meaning of these verbs approaches so 
closely the idea expressed by the subjunctive has 
made it impossible to decide when the uses of the 
auxiliary verbs just mentioned and illustrated entitles 
them to be classed as subjunctives or as equivalents 
of the subjunctive. The writer inclines to the latter 
method. He would parse these auxiliaries, wherever 
they have a subjunctive force, as forming (indica- 
tive) verb-phrases, equivalent to the subjunctive. See 
§§ 110-113. 

EXERCISE 

Point out the subjunctives and account for their 
use. 

I 'Tis better that the enemy seek us. 2. Take heed he hear 
us not. 3. A wise horseman should take care lest he pull the 
rein too tight. 4. This night before the cock crow, thou shalt 
deny me thrice. 5. May I be hanged if I am not telling you the 

1 Except in the obsolete second person singular. 



192 English Grammar [chap, xvi 

whole truth. 6. If you had a better reputation I might trust you. 
7. I could do it if I choose. 8. It was my wish that he might 
accompany me. 9. I hope you may have success. 10. Whatever 
might have been Sophia^s sensations, the rest of the family was 
easily consoled. 11. Did I hate thee, I would bid thee strike, 
that I might be avenged. 12. If we had another opportunity, we 
would begin at the other end. 13. He could answer you if he 
choose. 14. If it should be late, come again. 15. Might it not 
be well to telegraph for rooms ? 16. If a fortune should come to 
me, I should not know what to do with it. 17. I would help you 
if I could. 

173. Participles and Infinitives. — With regard to 
the syntax of participles and infinitives, it is neces- 
sary to add only a few points. 

(i) Participles, in their appositive use (§ 126), 
should, as a rule, limit a specific noun or pronoun : 
e.g., '^ disappointed in this, / then endeavored,'' etc., 
not '' disappointed in this, my next intention was," etc. 

(2) The perfect infinitive is best used when it 
represents an act completed prior to the time of the 
main verb. For example, we say, ''I am glad to find 
you," ** I am glad to have foimd you so soon," i.e., 
I am glad that the process of finding you has been 
completed ; *^ I was glad to find you " and ^^ I was 
glad to have found you " have corresponding mean- 
ings. After a perfect tense it is rare to find a per- 
fect infinitive, except by error. Thus, we say, '^ I 
should have expected to find you here." What *^ I 
should have expected to have found you here " means 
it is hard to see. 

(3) Within the last twenty or thirty years the 
usage known as the ''split infinitive," i.e., the placing 



CHAP, xvi] Syntax 193 

of an adverb between the sign of the infinitive {^d) 
and the infinitive itself, has come to be widely used 
in colloquial and literary English : e.g.^ "' I have orders 
to immediately set out." This usage has been vio- 
lently attacked by rhetoricians as a vulgarism. It 
is, however, used without hesitation by many writers 
of repute. In some cases it has the distinct advan- 
tage of bringing an adverb into an emphatic position : 
e.g., ''\ wish to tJioroitghly 7inderstand this matter." 
In others it is intolerably awkward. 

174. Adverbs. — With regard to the syntax of ad- 
verbs, it is necessary to observe the following points : 

(i) The Old English usage of making a negative 
statement emphatic by employing two or more neg- 
ative words has survived only in vulgar English : e.g., 
*^you Jiaint (have not) no business here nohow'' \ 
*^you wont do it again, neither,'' In modern Eng- 
lish two negatives are equivalent to an affirmative : 
e.g., ''there is 710 one who would not have done the 
same," i.e., every one would have done the same. 

(2) Only usually im.mediately precedes or follows 
the word or group of w^ords which it limits : e.g,, 
{a) " only an honest man would have made such a 
reply," {b) ''an honest man only (or alone) would 
have made such a reply," {e) "an honest man would 
07ily have made such a reply," {d) "under such cir- 
cumstances an honest man would have replied only," 
(^) " would have made only such a reply," (/) "would 
have made such a reply only." In {a) and {b) only 



1 94 English Grammar [chap, xvi 

limits an honest man, in {c) and (<^) the verbs woidd 
have made and would have replied, in {e) and (/) such 
a reply. In {a) and (^) the meaning is '' no one but 
an honest man " ; in {c) and {d\ that he would have 
replied but done nothing else ; in {e) and (/), that 
he would have replied in such a way and/ in no other. 
After a noun alone may properly take the place of 
only. It may be parsed as a predicate adjective, with 
an adverbial force, after an oniitted verb ; i.e.^ he alone 
is equivalent to '' he [does so, and he is] alone [in so 
doing]." Only, in the same construction, may be 
parsed as limiting a verb understood. The alterna- 
tive is to treat them both as adverbs limiting a 
noun. 

175. Conjunctions. — The position of the correlative 
conjunctions either . . , or, neither . . . nor, not 
only . . . but {also) should be noticed. Each word 
of the pair immediately precedes the word, or group 
of words, that is thus to be connected; e.g., '^it was 
discovered that either the city must be surrendered 
within two weeks or provisions and ammunition ob- 
tained," ^^the interpreter was unable not only to 
speak French but even to understand it." An error 
in following this usage results in connecting dis- 
similar words or groups of words, eg., ^^the city was 
attacked not only on the river side, but also a fierce 
fire was kept up from the batteries to the north." 
Here the group of words to be connected are ''the 
city was attacked," etc., and ''a fierce fire was," etc. 



CHAP, xvi] Syntax 195 

Not only should, therefore, begin the sentence ('' not 
only was the city," etc.). 

176. Words Used as Several Different Parts of Speech. 

— This is a convenient place to review the uses of 
several puzzling words, which have at different times 
the force of two or more different parts of speech. 
These are as, but, that, and zvhat. 

As may be (i) a relative pronoun (§ 73), (2) a 
relative adverb (§ 133), (3) a subordinate conjunction 

(§ 150). 

But may be (i) a relative pronoun (§ 73), (2) an 
adverb equivalent to only, as in '^ bict one hour more," 
(3) a preposition (§ 149), (4) a coordinate conjunction 
(§ 147), and (5) a subordinate conjunction (§ 149). 
As a coordinate conjunction it may also be correla- 
tive (§ 147). 

That may be (i) a relative pronoun (§ 71), (2) a 
demonstrative pronoun (§ 75), (3) a demonstrative 
adjective (§ 80), (4) an adverb or adverbial objective 
(§ 134), and (5) a conjunction (§ 149). 

What may be (i) an interrogative pronoun (§ 70), 
(2) a relative pronoun (§ 71), (3) a demonstrative 
pronoun (§ 75), (4) an interrogative adjective (§ 80), 
(5) a relative adjective (§ 80), and (6) used in the 
conjunctive-phrase, what with, e.g., ^' what with the 
heat and the noise I did not sleep a wink." As 
a relative pronoun and as a relative adjective, it 
may be definite (§§ 71, 80) or indefinite (§§ ']2, 
80). 



196 English Gr^animar [chap, xvi 

EXERCISE 

Parse the italicized words and phrases in the fol- 
lowing sentences : 

I . This she proceeded to deftly and, as far as an mexpert 
male observer ca7t vouch, artistically operate upon.^ 2. The 
sight was one to ininiejisely scandahze old Parhamentarians.^ 

3. I have determined to carefidly investigate theAvhole matter. ^ 

4. He ojily Kved for her sake. 5. He alone lived for her sake. 
6. He lived oidy for her sake. 7. He lived for her sake alone. 
8. He gave a dollar 07dy. 9. I am greatly obliged to you ; 
only'^ you should not have attempted so dangerous a deed. 
10. The captain was not only wounded, bid scarcely a private 
returned unhurt^ 11. I will neither believe you nor your 
brother. 12. I am glad to have seen you.^ 13. I expected to 
have started yesterday. ^ 14. What you are most anxious to 
conceal is usually just what is. best known. 15. What is it that 
you are so anxious to conceal ? 16. I cannot imagine what it is 
that you are so anxious to conceal. 17. What I shall do de- 
pends upon where I go. 18. What cannot be cured must be 
endured. 19. What a fuss you make ! 20. What fuss do you 
mean? 21. I Vnov^ what excuses you will make. 22. I tell you 
what I Let us start at once. 23. What with packing and 
getting started, I am tired to death. 24. That is the way I 
purpose to begin. 25. To that sort of thing I have no objec- 
tion. 26. I do not believe that that is the w^ay to begin. 27. I 
wouldn't give that much for his plan. 28. Bid one man re- 
turned. 29. No one bid him returned. 30. The soldiers re- 
turned, bid they had been badly beaten. 31. I do not doubt 
but he has made his plans perfect. 32. As 2i gentleman, can 
you give your word that you were there? 33. It is not such 
a day as I would have chosen. 34. It is as clear as can be. 
34. It is clear as day. 

177. Order of Words. — As the relation of one word 
or group of words to another is most frequently de- 

1 Comment on the propriety of the usage. 

2 Here equivalent to but. What part of speech ? 



CHAP. XVI] Syntax 197 

termined in English, not by the form of a word but 
by its position (see, for instance, § 174, 2), it follows 
that a very large part of the syntax of our language 
depends upon the order of words. It is impossible, 
however, within the natural limits of secondary school 
instruction to study, in any satisfactory way, the 
laws of thought and expression which govern the or- 
der of w^ords in English. Indeed, even the elementary 
study of these laws belongs rather to rhetoric ^ than 
to grammar. It w^ill be sufficient here to notice only 
two points wdth regard to the order of words : (i) the 
attributive adjective regularly precedes its noun, and 
(2) the subject regularly precedes its verb. 

Exceptions to (i) occur (a) in poetry or exalted 
prose, e.g., '^for vespers nme,'' '^a pennon ^<^7"; and 
{b) in certain phrases, usually derived from the 
French,^ which have become stereotyped expressions, 
e.g., '^heir appare^it^'' '* blood royal,'' ^^time immemo- 
rial,'' *'body politic." In many apparent exceptions 
the adjective is really half predicate in its force, e.g., 
*^ Tweed's fair river, broad and deep, and Cheviot's 
mountains lone." Here the italicized adjectives have 
the effect of predicate adjectives in relative clauses, 
i.e., Tweed's fair river [which is] broad and deep, 
and Cheviot's mountains [which are] lone. 

Exceptions to (2) occur {a) in a great variety of 
instances in w^hich special emphasis is given to words 

^ See Wendell's English Coiiipositio7i, pages 35-37 ; and Carpen- 
ter's Exercises in Rheto7'ic (Advanced Course), Chapter ix. 

2 In French the attributive adjective frequently follows its noun. 



198 English Grainviar [chap, xvj 

or phrases by placing them at the beginning of the 
sentence, e.g., ''such is the case," ''soon after began 
the real conflict," "near the house stood an old 
well"; {b) in somewhat similar instances, when an 
adverbial subordinate clause precedes the principal 
clause, e.g., "while the government of /the Tudors 
was in its highest vigor, took place an event which," 
etc.; (^) sometimes after the relative adverb as, e.g., 
"large as was the amount "; '(<^) sometimes in rela- 
tive clauses beginning with a preposition, e.g., "the 
man upon whom rests the whole responsibility " ; {e) 
where a condition is implied, e.g., "were that the 
case, I should not be surprised." In older English 
the subject regularly followed the verb in questions, 
e.g,, "saw you him .^ " We now almost invariably 
make use of the auxiliaries do and did in asking 
questions referring to the present or past. The verb 
then (/) falls in the middle of the resulting verb- 
phrase, as is also the case in questions involving 
compound tenses of the verb or verb-phrases. The 
only other common instance in which the verb pre- 
cedes its subject is in "quoth he," "said he," etc. 
An inversion in the natural English order, except 
in cases where for one reason or another it has be- 
come a part of English idiom, always gives an ex- 
alted or pretentious effect to the style. 

EXERCISE 

Point out the cases of inverted order in the follow- 
ing sentences and decide (i) whether the order could 



CHAP, xvi] Syntax 199 

be made more natural, and (2) what in that case the 
difference in meaning or effect would be. 

I. '^ I am not to be lodged there,'* said the king, with a 
shudder. 2. Smiled then, well pleased, the aged man. 3. Wise 
are all his ways. 4,. Very civil were the salutations on both 
sides. 5. Typical of his ow^n nature is this conjunction of the 
false and the true. 6. Victories, indeed, they were. 7. Young 
he seemed and sad. 8. Friends have I none. 9. Here are 
the other passengers. 10. There v/as a famine in the land. 
I r. There can be no dispute about it. 12. Therefore am I bold. 
13. Now, howTver, came great news. 14. Scarcely had he 
uttered these w^ords than he fell pierced to the heart. 15. O 
swiftly can speed my dapple-grey steed. 16. On the windows- 
seat lay a banjo and an open book. 17. To such straits is a 
king sometimes driven. 18. Never was there a mind more 
keenly critical than his. 19. Not only has he succeeded in 
his first attempt, but he has already laid plans for a second. 
20. The greater the new power they create, the greater seems 
their revenge. 21. Will nothing move you? 22. How do you 
feel? 23. What visions have I seen ! 24. Perish the thought. 
25. What were his thoughts I cannot tell.^ 26. A very neat 
cottage residence, in which lived the widow of a former curate. 

27. Death itself is not so painful as is this sudden horror. 

28. Many and various were the curiosities he had collected. 

29. It is only natural for me to be surprised'. 30. There is 
something I have to tell you. 31. Him the almighty power 
hurled headlong, flaming, from the ethereal sky. 

178. Conditional Sentences. — Conditional sentences 
are so familiar a feature of Greek and Latin gram- 
mar that the student of the classics may feel ill at 
ease unless he has classified such sentences in ac- 
cordance with the usages of English syntax. As a 
matter of fact, owing to the comparative infrequence 

1 The indirect question sometimes retains the inverted order of a 
direct question. 



200 English GramTuar [chap, xvi 

of the subjunctive, the English conditional sentence 
scarcely presents any difficulty. We may, however, 
classify English conditional sentences, like Latin, 
into (i) logical, (2) ideal, and (3) unreal.^ (i) A 
logical condition simply makes one fact dependent 
upon another supposed fact, e.g,^ '4| to-morrow 
is fair, we will get an early start." (2) The ideal 
condition (compare § 169) makes a fact dependent 
on something that is conceived of as ideally possible, 
eg,^ ''\l to-morrow be fair, we will get an early start.'' 
(3) The unreal condition states as if it were a fact 
something that cannot be true, because it is depend- 
ent on an unreal supposition, e.g.^ "if to-day were 
fair, we could start now." In (i) the logical condi- 
tional sentence, neither the verb in the subordinate 
clause nor that in the principal clause can be sub- 
junctive. In (2) the ideal conditional sentence, the 
dependent verb must be in the subjunctive or consist 
of an equivalent verb-phrase. In (3) the unreal con- 
ditional sentence both verbs must be subjunctives or 
consist of equivalent verb-phrases. 

EXERCISE 

Classify the following conditional sentences, and 
state whether the verbs in the principal and subordi- 
nate clauses are indicative or subjunctive. 

I. If you have tears, prepare to shed them now. 2. A penal 
statute is virtually annulled if the penalties which it imposes are 
regularly remitted. 3. My blessings Hght upon thee if thou 

1 See the classification in Gildersleeve's Latin Grannnar. 



CHAP. XVI] Syntax 201 

respect them. 4. If solitude succeed to grief, release from pain 
is slight relief. 5. Every bullet hits the mark, according to the 
huntsman's superstition, if it have first been dipped in the marks- 
man's blood. 6. On Thursday, if he were in the house, why 
didn't he speak? 7. If I were the conservative party in Eng- 
land, I would not for a hundred thousand pounds an hour allow 
those corn-laws to continue. 8. If he calls, say that I am out. 
9. I would not have said this for the world if I was not sure of 
being right. 10. What should I be if I was deaf to the poverty 
and sorrows of others. 11. So I were out of prison and kept 
sheep, I should be as merry as the day is long. 12. Supposing 
it were true, what could you do about it? 13. Were but your 
duty with your faith united, would you still share the low-born 
peasant's lot? 14. Had he called, I should have heard him. 

15. Were you to speak aloud, our lives would not be safe. 

16. I should have known it by this time if he had arrived. 

EXERCISE FOR REVIEW 

[The following exercise embraces a number of puzzling con- 
structions, which will test the pupil's knowledge of the principles 
he has been over in the preceding chapters.] 

Parse the italicised words : — 

I. Somehow or other I do not agree with you. 2. You are 
no soldier. 3. You are no happier. 4. I have none to give 
you. 5. Alt the better. 6. I should like so7ne more pudding. 
7. Where does this road lead to f 8. Where do you zova^ from ? 
9. Even Homer sometimes nods. 10. I like him, — his faults 
notwithstanding. 11. I must see him, and //^<2^ quickly. 12. Both 
their ?nothers ^ were handsome women. 1 3 . Alt their hearts were 
set on it. 14. Make the best of it. 15. I was given to nnde?'- 
stand that you were coming. 16. The instructions within will 
guide you. 17. A few ycvoxq struggles^ and all was over. 18. To 
tell the truth, I am completely bewildered. 19. It is shameful 
\h2iih.e shoidd be so treated. 20. It is better that I should re- 

^ The peculiarity of this expression lies in the fact that both and 
their refer to the same people. Cf. "the mothers of the7}i both \YtxQ 
handsome women." 



202 English Grammar [chap, xvi 

main. 21. I wish he would come, 22. I had rather not go 
than go under such circumstances. ^ 23. If you mouth it, as 
many of your players do, I had as lief the tow?t-crier spoke my 
lines. 24. Never you ;;//>/^ what they say. 25. i^^what I will, 
I can't finish my work. 26. Who was it that said so ? 27. They 
took no notice of him. 28. He was taken absolutely no 7totice 
of. 29. The time was too short for us to acco?nplish anything. 
30. To think that he could be so foolish. 31. If he had wished, 
he could have made his fortune. 32. If he had wanted to, he 
7night have 7nade his fortune. 33. Is he anywhere hereabouts ? 
34. Ho^v coulditbe^^^/^^rw/j-^.^ 35. The wind is ^<7^/. 36. Hope 
springs eternal in the human breast. 37. I must make tip my 
mind. 38. He locked himself in. 39. I want to^ but I can^t. 
40. It was a poor bed to sleep in. 41. I saw him sojne two 
hours ago. 42. I am ^all out of breath. 43. The men all 
rushed forward. 44. He is punished enotcgh. 45. I have had 
enough of this. 46. There is wood enough here. 47. He was 
heard to deny it. 48. I want it done at once. 49. I saw him 
drowned. 50. I sent him to see if it was true» 51. There was 
no water to drink. 52. He saw a dainty handkerchief on the 
ground, which handkerchief he promptly took possession of. 

53. Suffice it to say that the journey was completed at last. 

54. I command jK<9^^ to fire. 55. They were commanded Xo fire. 
56. He looked every inch a kifig. 57. He kept his hat on. 
58. The journey home was uneventful. 59. He would often say 
that a mere chance had saved him. 60. He asked if I was 
there. 61. He commanded that they jA^/^/<^^^r^/^<^^^^. 62. He 
declared that they should be released, d^)^ They did not know 
what to do^ where to go, or who to look to for advice. 64. If you 
are a man, prove yourself to be so. 65. Eat such things as are 
set before you. 66. As not unfrequently happens, the cold 
weather has come on us suddenly. 67. Up^ guards, and at ^em. 

1 Had rather go is a perfectly correct idiom. Had go can be parsed 
as an idiomatic verb-phrase, equivalent to the past subjunctive, or had 
may be taken separately as in the past subjunctive, with the infinitive 
go as its direct object. Woidd rather go is also correct usage. Had 
rather was not derived from would rather ^ but was based on the anal- 
ogy of the old phrase, had as lief 



CHAP. XVI] Syntax 203 

68. As regards money, you must look out for yourself. 69. How 
would it suit you to sta7't to-morrow? 70. Will you be so good 
as to help me a moment ? 71 . It seems to be true. 72. I don't 
know for whom to vote. ^^. Judging from appearances, he is 
poor. 74. My advice to you as a friend is to start at once. 
75. The smith a mighty man is he. 76. The rain came pouring 
down. ^']. Be still, sad heart, and cease repi7iing. 78. I saw , 
it coming' 



204 English Grauimar [chap, xvii 



CHAPTER XVII 

ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES 



/ 



179. Purpose of Analysis. — 180. Sentences Classified as to 
Thought. -181. Sentences Classified as to Form. — 182. The 
Extension of the Parts of Speech. — 183. Equivalents of the 
Parts of Speech. — 184. Noun-Phrases and Noun-Clauses.— 
185. Adjective-Phrases and Adjective-Clauses. — 186. Ad- 
verb-Clauses.— 187. How TO Analyze a Simple Sentence. — 
188. How TO Analyze Complex and Compound Sentences. 

179. Purpose of Analysis. — The system or science 
of Grammar is chiefly valuable in that it enables us 
to analyze our forms of expression, thus determining 
more accurately their force and meaning. We have 
already seen how all words may be classed under 
various heads, the parts of speech, and have noticed 
the relations which they bear to one another in speech 
and writing. We must now complete our study by 
discussing the various kinds of sentences which may 
be formed by combination of these parts of speech, 
and by deciding on a method of analyzing sentences 
into their logical parts. 

180. Sentences Classified as to Thought. — Sentences 
may be classified, according to the thought or idea 
they contain, as (i) declarative sentences, those that 
make a statement of fact ; (2) imperative sentences, 
those that express a command or a wish ; and (3) in- 



CHAP, xvii] Analysis of Sentences 205 

terrogative sentences, those that ask a question. 
E.g., (i) ''the ram continues"; (2) ''make the best 
time you can," "heaven help you"; (3) "can you 
help me?" Exclamatory sentences are closely akin 
to (3), and are usually placed in that class. 

181. Sentences Classified as to Form. — A much more 
important method, however, is that which classifies 
sentences according to their form, as (i) simple, 
(2) complex, and (3) compound. 

(i) A simple sentence contains only a single state- 
ment, command, or question, e.g., {a) "the rain is 
falling"; {b) "rain and hail were pouring down"; 
(c) "it thunders and lightens terribly." It should be 
noticed that in a simple sentence there may be more 
than one subject, as in (^); more than one predicate, 
as in (<;); or even both, as in {d), "the rain and hail 
began in an instant and poured down incessantly." 
Even in the last case, however, the form of a simple 
statement is preserved, for each subject applies to 
each verb, and vice versa. 

(2) A complex sentence contains one simple or 
principal statement, command, or question, and one 
or more subordinate clauses, e.g., "the rain fell so 
fast that we were drenched through before we could 
reach home." 

(3) A compound sentence contains two or more 
principal statements, frequently united by conjunc- 
tions, e.g., "the rain descended, and the floods came, 
and the winds blew." Each principal statement may, 



2o6 English Grammar [chap, xvii 

however, be accompanied by subordinate clauses, as 
in sentence lo in the following exercise. Such sen- 
tences may be called complex-compound. 

EXERCISE 

Are the sentences in the following passage simple, 
complex, compound, or complex-compound } 

^^The Pilgrim^ s P7'ogress stole silently into the world. Not a 
single copy of the first edition is known to be in existence. The 
year of publication has not been ascertained. It is probable 
that, during some months, the little volume circulated only 
among poor and obscure sectaries. But soon the irresistible 
charm of a book which gratified the imagination of the reader 
with all the action and scenery of a fairy tale, which exercised 
his ingenuity by setting him to discover a multitude of curious 
analogies, which interested his feelings for human beings, frail 
like himself, and struggling with temptations from within and 
from without, which every moment drew a smile from him by 
some stroke of quaint yet simple pleasantry, and nevertheless 
left on his mind a sentiment of reverence for God and of sym- 
pathy for man, began to produce its effect. In puritanical circles, 
from which plays and novels were strictly excluded, that effect 
was such as no work of genius, though it were superior to the 
Iliad, to Do?i Quixote, or to Othello, can ever produce on a mind 
accustomed to indulge in literary luxury. In 1678 came forth a 
second edition with additions ; and then the demand became 
immense. In the four following years the book was reprinted 
six times. The eighth edition, which contains the last improve- 
ments made by the author, was published in 1682, the ninth in 
1684, the tenth in 1685. The help of the engraver had early 
been called in ; and tens of thousands of children looked with 
terror and delight on execrable copper plates, w^hich represented 
Christian thmsting his sword into Apollyon, or writhing in the 
grasp of Giant Despair. In Scotland, and in some of the 
colonies, the Pilgrim was even more popular than in his native 



#ij 



CHAP. XVII] ' Analysis of Seiitences 207 

country. 1 Bunyan has told us, with very pardonable vanity, that 
in New England his dream was the daily subject of the conversa- 
tion of thousands, and was thought worthy to appear in the most 
superb binding. He had numerous admirers in Holland, and 
among the Huguenots of France. With the pleasures, however, 
he experienced some of the pains of eminence. Knavish book- 
sellers put forth volumes of trash under his name ; and envious 
scribblers maintained it to be impossible that the poor ignorant 
tinker should really be the author of the book w^hich was called 
his.^' — Macaulay: John Bunyan. 

182. The Extension of the Parts of Speech. — It will 
be readily seen that complex and compound sentences 
are both amplifications of the simple sentence. The 
simple sentence consists in its barest form of a noun 
and a verb, or, if the verb be transitive, a noun (sub- 
ject), a verb (predicate), and a noun (object). All sen- 
tences are built up on this basis. Every sentence has 
its noun-subject, its verb-predicate, and, perhaps, its 
noun-object, though the place of the nouns may be 
taken by pronouns, by phrases, and by clauses, and 
the place of the verb by verb-phrases. Now, nouns 
can be modified only by adjectives, and verbs only 
by adverbs. It is obvious, then, that the parts of 
speech really essential in the structure of a sentence 
are nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs. But each 
of the parts of speech has, as we have already noticed 
(§25), what we may call the power of extension; 
that is, it may consist of a group of words, i.e., a 
phrase or a clause. It is, therefore, necessary that 

1 Here the sense is, "than he was in his native country." The 
clause introduced by than is, therefore, a subordinate clause, and the 
whole sentence is complex. 



208 English Grammar [chap, xvii 

we should examine the equivalents of the various 
parts of speech. 

183. Equivalents of the Parts of Speech. — The 

equivalent of a part of speech may be (i) a phrase, 
i.e., a group of words not containing a subject and 
a predicate, or (2) a clause What we have to do, 
then, is to examine the system by which phrases and 
clauses have the force of each of the parts of speech. 
We may except the pronoun, which is itself an equiva- 
lent of the noun. As for the other parts of speech, 
prepositions and conjunctions can, in accordance with 
their nature as connecting particles, have as equiva- 
lents only phrases, and preposition-phrases and con- 
junction-phrases we have already examined (§§ 140 
and 147).-^ The equivalents of the exclamation have 
also been considered (§ 152). It remains for us, 
therefore, to examine more particularly noun-phrases, 
noun-clauses, adjective-phrases, adjective-clauses, and 
adverb-clauses. 

184. Noun-Phrases and Noun-Clauses. — Noun-phrases 
are formed by infinitives, and have been explained in 
§§ 62 and 1 15-120. Noun-clauses (see § 62) are fre- 
quently introduced by tliat : e.g.^ {a) ^^ that we are 
mined (suhject) is certain " ; (/?) '^ I hope that he will 
have the courtesy to come'' (object); (^) ^'the truth is 
that we have been deceived'' (predicate nominative); 

1 Verb-phrases have already been treated in §§ 105-113; adverb- 
phrases in §§ 138, 145. All groups of words containing verbs and hav- 
ing the force of verbs we call verb-phrases, not verb-clauses. 



CHAP. XVII] Analysis of Sentences 209 

(d)^'I am informed t/iat tlie bank had failed'' (re- 
tained object; see § 156); (e) ''the fact that he is 
here (apposition) is proof enough." Frequently, 
however, that is omitted, as may be the case in each 
of the preceding examples except (<^). In such sen- 
tences as "' it is certain that zve are ruined^'' it may be 
parsed as the grammatical subject and the noun-clause 
as the logical subject ; or the noun-clause may be 
parsed as in apposition with it. Compare {a). It 
should be noticed that indirect questions are always 
noun-clauses. 

EXERCISE 

Review the exercise following § 122, and parse the 
noun-clauses in the following sentences : 

I. That you were there is well known. 2. It is well known 
that you were there. 3. I know that you were there. 4. That 
you were there I am certain. 5. I told him that you were there. 
6. It is probable that during some months the volume circulated 
only among poor and obscure sectaries. 7. Bunyan has told us, 
with very pardonable vanity, that in New England his dream was 
the daily subject of the conversation of thousands. 8. I have 
no doubt that he will come. 9. I understand how it was done. 
10. Go straight to where he stands. 11. I only asked whether 
you could come. 12. I am informed that there is no danger. 
13. The condition on which I consent is that you agree never 
again to be guilty of such an offence. 14. It is my belief that 
we were wholly mistaken as to the facts. 15. It is on the shoul- 
ders of each citizen that the real responsibility rests. ^ 16. I 
asked if I could come. 17 The question of^ what he means 
must be settled at once. 

1 Compare, "the fact is that on the shoulders of each citizen rests 
the real responsibility." 

2 Compare the appositional possessive in " my scamp of a brother." 

p 



2IO English Gi'aminar [chap, xvii 

185. Adjective-Phrases and Adjective-Clauses. — Ad- 
jective-phrases (see §§ 88, 144) are of three sorts: (i) 
prepositional phrases, i.e., those introduced by a prep- 
osition, (2) participial phrases, and (3) infinitival 
phrases. Typical examples are as follows: (i) ''a 
relative of my mother,'' '^my faith ijt yoi^,'' '^hope/<?r 
its success" ; (2) *^ a preparation composed of camphor 
and qicinine,'' ^^ seeing him come^ I hastened to the 
door"; (3) ''the life to came,'' ''faith to believe." 
Not many of these adjective-phrases could be ex- 
changed for equivalent adjectives, but it is not hard 
to see that they all have the force of adjectives, in 
that they describe a noun or modify its meaning. 

Adjective-clauses (see §§ 88, 138) are introduced by 
relative pronouns or relative adverbs, expressed or 
understood: e.g., "he who hesitates is lost"; "there 
I saw a sight that can be better imagined than de- 
scribed" ; " it was at the time when I first met you " ; 
" the spot zvhere I stood I remember distinctly " ; "at 
the moment \zvhen\ I caught sight of him^ I fired 
both barrels " ; "a friend \who}n~\ you can trust in 
all things is hard to find." 

186. Adverb-Clauses. — Adverb-clauses have already 
been treated (see § 138). They are introduced by 
subordinate conjunctions or relative adverbs, modify 
verbs, adjectives, and adverbs (or their equivalents), 
and express manner, degree, etc. (§ 130). They have 
a wide range of meaning, indicating purpose, cause, 
condition, concession, etc. Examples are : " as he 



CHAP, xvii] Analysis of Sentences 2il 

walked on, he stopped his song"; "I shall wait 
trntil he retnrns "; '' he got away before I knew it'' ; 
'' if y^^ ^^"^ responsible for it^ I advise you to be 
careful." 

EXERCISE 

Review II. in the exercise following § 138; find 
the adjective-clauses in the exercise following § 181, 
and the adverb-clauses in Part II. of the exercise 
following § 138, in the exercise following § 151, and 
in the exercise following § 181. 

187. How to analyze a Simple Sentence. — ^To ana- 
lyze a simple sentence it is necessary to find (i) 
the subject, (2) the predicate, (3) the object, (4) the 
modifiers of the subject, (5) the modifiers of the predi- 
cate, (6) the modifiers of the object. The subject, 
predicate, and object usually follow each other in 
the order stated, though this order is often departed 
from (§ 177). Modifiers of the subject or object 
must be adjectival, answering the question ^Svhat 
kind of," and may be adjectives, adjective-phrases, 
or adjective-clauses. Modifiers of the predicate must 
be adverbial, answering the question '' how," '' when," 
''where," ''to what degree," or "what for," etc., and 
may be adverbs, adverb-phrases, or adverb-clauses. 
The analysis of a sentence may be performed men- 
tally or indicated on paper by some convenient ar- 
rangement of lines or columns. 

Take, for example, the sentence, "Above the level 
bit of timber to the east a vast dome of pale, undaz- 



212 



English Grammar 



[chap. XVII 



zling gold was rising, silently and swiftly." Here 
(i) the subject is dome, (2) the predicate was rising ; 
there is (3) no object. The subject is modified by 
(4) the article a, the adjective vast, and the adjec- 
tive-phrase of . . . gold. The predicate is modified 
by (5) the adverbs silently and swiff ly, ^.nd by 
the adverb-phrase above the level bit of timber to 
the east. This adverb-phrase may be further ana- 
lyzed into the following parts : {a) the preposi- 
tion above ; {b) its object, the noun bit; (^) the 
modifiers of bit, viz., the article tJie, the adjective 
level, the two adjective-phrases of timber and to the 
east. 

This analysis may be graphically represented in 
the following manner, by placing the subject, predi- 
cate, and object in separate columns. The modifiers 
of each are placed directly below it. 



Subject. 


Predicate. 


Object. 


dome 


was rising 


7ione 


Adjectives : a, vast 

Adjective-phrase : 

of . . . gold 


Adverbs : silently, 

swiftly 
Adverb-phrase : 

above the level 

bit of timber to 

the east 


none 



Another convenient method of representation is 
the following, in which adjectives, adjective-phrases. 



CHAP, xvii] Analysis of Sentences 213 

adverbs, and adverb-phrases are placed on oblique 
lines joining the words or phrases they modify. 

dome ..... 





There is some danger that the pupil will learn 
to depend too much on graphical representations of 
analysis. These methods are often convenient in 
dealing with intricate sentences, but the student 
should make it his ambition to acquire the power of 
holding in his mind the mutual relations of the parts 
of a sentence. He will find it of great advantage in 
the study of rhetoric and literature and of the gram- 
mar of other Janguages. 

188. How to analyze Complex and Compound Sen- 
tences. — Complex sentences differ from simple sen- 
tences in having a clause or clauses as modifiers of 
the subject, predicate, or object. Take, for example, 
the complex sentence, ''Then he rented an upstairs 
tenement, in which his family lived on terms of 
equality and the greatest intimacy with the family 
of the landlord, occupying the ground floor, until he 
could buy or build a house for himself, the upper 
story of which could in time be rented." Here he is 



214 



English Grammar 



[chap. XVII 



the subject, not modified ; rerited is the predicate, 
modified only by then ; tenement is the object, modi- 
fied by the adjectives an and tipstairs, and the ad- 
jective-clause which takes up the remainder of the 
sentence. The main structure of the sentence is so 
simple that it need not be represented by any scheme. 
The final clause, however, is intricate, and its analysis 
may be represented as follows : 





Subject and Modi- 
fiers. 


Predicate and Modifiers. 


family 


lived 



Pronoun (possessive 
case, with force of 
adjective) ; his. 



Adverb-phrases: (i) on terms of equality 
and the greatest intimacy ; (2) with the 
family of the landlord. 

Adverb-clause : (3) until he could buy or 
build a house for himself. 



This graphical scheme so far makes clear the intri- 
cacy of the long adjective-clause that we can see 
further that in (2) family is modified by the partici- 
pial adjective-phrase occnpyi7ig the ground floor, and 
that in (3) house is modified by the adjective-clause 
the tipper story of which could in time be rented. 

Compound sentences can be divided at once into 
the simple or complex sentences that compose them. 
These simple or complex sentences can then be 
treated in the ways described above. 

The same analysis may also be shown as follows. 



CHAP. XVIl] 



Analysis of Sentences 



215 



Adjective-clauses and adverb-clauses are placed on 
lower lines, parallel with the words they modify. On 
the link between the two lines is placed the connect- 
ing word or phrase, 
he rented tenement 



J/ 




family- 



- lived 




he could buv or build 



- house 



p/ 


7" 




i/ 


V 





S'/ 


/ 


Ma 


^/ 


/ 


^ 


^/ 






^/ 







story could be rented 





2l6 English Graimnar [chap, xvii 

EXERCISE 

As an exercise in the analysis of sentences, it is 
recommended that the class take a chapter or series 
of paragraphs from some standard work of modern 
English prose, such, for example, as an essay of 
Macaulay's or a speech of Burke's. F/or conven- 
ience, however, several passages are here inserted. 

^* He had, in spite of much mental and much bodily affliction, 
clung vehemently to life. The feeling described in that fine but 
gloomy paper which closes the series of his Idlers seemed to 
grow stronger in him as his last hour drew near. He fancied that 
he should be able to draw his breath more easily in a southern 
climate, and would probably have set out for Rome and Naples, 
but for his fear of the expense of the journey. That expense, 
indeed, he had the means of defraying ; for he had laid up about 
two thousand pounds, the fruit of labors which had made the 
fortune of several publishers. But he was unwilling to break in 
upon this hoard, and he seems to have washed even to keep its 
existence a secret. Some of his friends hoped that the govern- 
ment might be induced to increase his pension to six hundred 
pounds a year ; but this hope was disappointed, and he resolved 
to stand one English winter more. That winter was his last. 
His legs grew weaker ; his breath grew shorter ; the fatal water 
gathered fast, in spite of incisions which he — courageous against 
pain, but timid against death — urged his surgeons to make deeper 
and deeper. Though the tender care which had mitigated his 
sufferings during months of sickness at Streatham was withdrawn, 
he was not left desolate. The ablest physicians and surgeons 
attended him, and refused to accept fees from him. Burke parted 
from him with deep emotion. Windham sat much in the sick- 
room, arranged the pillows, and sent his own servant to watch at 
night by the bed. Frances Burney, whom the old man had cher- 
ished with fatherly kindness, stood weeping at the door ; while 
Langton, whose piety eminently qualified him to be an adviser 
and comforter at such a time, received the last pressure of his 
friend's hand within. When at length the moment^ dreaded 



CHAP. XVII] Analysis of Sentences 217 

through so many years, came close, the dark cloud passed away 
from Johnson's mind. His temper became unusually patient and 
gentle ; he ceased to think with terror of death and of that which 
lies beyond death ; and he spoke much of the mercy of God and 
of the propitiation of Christ. In this serene frame of mind he 
died, on the 13th of December, 1784. He was laid a week later 
in Westminster Abbey, among the eminent men of whom he had 
been the historian, — Cowley and Denham, Dryden and Con- 
greve. Gay, Prior, and Addison." 

— MaCAULAY : Life of Samuel Johnson. 

"As to the wealth which the colonies have drawn from the sea 
by their fisheries, you had all that matter fully opened at your bar. 
You surely thought those acquisitions of value, for they seemed 
even to excite your envy ; and yet the spirit by which that enter- 
prising employment has been exercised ought rather, in my opin- 
ion, to have raised your esteem and admiration. And pray. 
Sir, what in the w^orld is equal to it ? Pass by the other parts, 
and look at the manner in which the people of New England have 
of late carried on the w^iale fishery. Whilst we follow them 
among the tumbling mountains of ice, and behold them penetrat- 
ing into the deepest frozen recesses of Hudson's Bay and Davis's 
Straits, w^iilst we are looking for them beneath the arctic circle, 
we hear that they have pierced into the opposite region of polar 
cold, that they are at the antipodes, and engaged under the frozen 
Serpent of the South. Falkland Island, which seemed too remote 
and romantic an object for the grasp of national ambition, is but 
a stage and resting-place in the progress of their victorious indus- 
try. Nor is the equinoctial heat more discouraging to them than 
the accumulated winter of both the poles. We know that whilst 
some of them draw the line and strike the harpoon on the coast 
of Africa, others run the longitude and pursue their gigantic game 
along the coast of Brazil. No sea but what is vexed by their 
fisheries ; no climate that is not witness to their toils. Neither 
the perseverance of Holland, nor the activity of France, nor the 
dexterous and firm sagacity of English enterprise ever carried 
this most perilous mode of hardy industry to the extent to which 
it has been pushed by this recent people ; a people who are still, 
as it were, but in the gristle, and not yet hardened into the bone 



2i8 English Grammar [chap, xvii 

of manhood. When I contemplate these things ; when I know 
that the colonies in general owe little or nothing to any care of 
ours, and that they are not squeezed into this happy form by the 
constraints of watchful and suspicious government, but that, 
through a wise and salutary neglect, a generous nature has been 
suffered to take her own way to perfection ; when I reflect upon 
these effects, when I see how profitable they have been to us, I 
feel all the pride of power sink, and all presumption in the wis- 
dom of human contrivances melt and die away within me. My 
rigor relents. I pardon something to the spirit of liberty." 

— Burke : Speech on Conciliation with America, 

'' And Raveloe was a village where many of the old echoes 
lingered, undrowned by new voices. Not that it was one of 
those barren parishes lying on the outskirts of civilization, in- 
habited by meagre sheep and thinly scattered shepherds ; on the 
contrary, it lay in the rich central plain of what we are pleased 
to call Merry England, and held farms which, speaking from a 
spiritual point of view, paid highly desirable tithes. But it was 
nestled in a snug, well-wooded hollow, quite an hour's journey 
on horseback from any turnpike, where it was never reached by 
the vibrations of the coach horn, or of public opinion. It was 
an important-looking village, with a fine old church and large 
churchyard in the heart of it, and two or three large brick-and- 
stone homesteads, with well-walled orchards and ornamental 
weathercocks, standing close upon the road, and lifting more 
imposing fronts than the rectory, which peeped from among the 
trees on the other side of the churchyard ; a village which 
showed at once the summits of its social life, and told the prac- 
tised eye that there was no great park and manor house in the 
vicinity, but that there were several chiefs in Raveloe who could 
farm badly quite at their ease, drawing enough money from their 
bad farming, in those war times, to live in a rollicking fashion, 
and keep a jolly Christmas, Whitsun, and Easter tide." 

— George Eliot : Silas Marner, 

" The music also of the challengers breathed from time to time 
wild bursts expressive of triumph or defiance, while the clowns 
grudged a holiday which seemed to pass away in inactivity ; and 



CHAP, xvii] Analysis of Sentences 219 

old knights and nobles lamented in whispers the decay of martial 
spirit, spoke of the triumphs of their younger days, but agreed 
that the land did not now supply dames of such transcendent 
beauty as had animated the jousts of former times. Prince John 
began to talk to his attendants about making ready the banquet, 
and the necessity of adjudging the prize to Brian de Bois-Guilbert, 
who had, wdth a single spear, overthrown two knights and foiled 
a third. 

'^ At length, as the Saracenic music of the challengers concluded 
one of those long and high flourishes with which they had broken 
the silence of the lists, it was answ^ered by a solitary trumpet, 
which breathed a note of defiance from the northern extremity. 
All eyes w^re turned to see the new champion which these 
sounds announced, and no sooner wxre the barriers opened than 
he paced into the lists. As far as could be judged of a man 
sheathed in armor, the new adventurer did not greatly exceed 
the middle size, and seemed to be rather slender than strongly 
made. His suit of armor w^as formed of steel, richly inlaid 
with gold, and the device on his shield was a young oak tree 
pulled up by the roots, with the Spanish word Desdichado^ signi- 
fying Disinherited. He was mounted on a gallant black horse, 
and as he passed through the lists he gracefully saluted the 
Prince and the ladies by lowering his lance. The dexterity with 
which he managed his steed, and something of youthful grace 
which he displayed in his manner, won him the favor of the 
multitude, which some of the lower classes expressed by calling 
out, ^ Touch Ralph de Vipont's shield — touch the Hospitaller^s 
shield ; he has the least sure seat, he is your cheapest bargain.'' 

''- The champion, moving onward amid these well-meant hints, 
ascended the platform by the sloping alley which led to it from 
the lists, and, to the astonishment of all present, riding straight 
up to the central pavilion, struck wath the sharp end of his spear 
the shield of Brian de Bois-Guilbert until it rung again. All 
stood astonished at his presumption, but none more than the 
redoubted Knight w^hom he had thus defied to mortal combat, 
and who, little expecting so rude a challenge, was standing care- 
lessly at the door of the pavilion. 

^' ' Have you confessed yourself, brother,' said the Templar^ 



220 English Grammar [chap, xvii 

'• and have you heard mass this morning, that you peril your life 
so frankly ? ' 

" ^ I am fitter to meet death than thou art,' answered the Dis- 
inherited Knight ; for by this name the stranger had recorded 
himself in the books c.'tbe tourney. 

" ^ Then take your plajc in the lists,' said Bois-Guilbert, ^ and 
look your last upon the sun ; for this night thou shalt sleep in 
paradise.' ' 

" ' Gramercy for thy courtesy,' replied the Disinherited Knight, 
^ and to requite it, I advise thee to take a fresh horse and a new 
lance, for by my honor you will need both.' 

" Having expressed himself thus confidently, he reined his horse 
backward down the slope which he had ascended, and compelled 
him in the same manner to move backward through the lists, till 
he reached the northern extremity, where he remained stationary, 
in expectation of his antagonist.^' — Scott ; Ivanhoe. 



Phonology 221 



APPENDIX 

I. PHONOLOGY 

189. The English Alphabet imperfectly Phonetic. — Our 

alphabet is a phonetic one ; that is, the characters stand for the 
elementary sounds of the language, not for words or syllables, 
nor for complete ideas. A perfect phonetic alphabet should 
have a character for each elementary sound in the language, 
and always use the same character for the same sound. The 
English alphabet is very imperfect in this respect. The same 
letter often represents two or more sounds, as do a and g\ the 
same sound is represented in two or more ways (/^, ^, g) : some 
elementary sounds are represented by two letters {th^ sh), some 
letters stand for two sounds each (^,7). Furthermore, there 
are many silent letters, not pronounced at all. 

These silent letters often stand for a sound which was spoken 
when the spelling of the word was established, but has since 
been lost. Many of the silent final ^'s are of this sort. The 
silent letters gk (as in night) once represented a sound no 
longer heard at all in English ; it is represented by ch in Ger- 
man. Many German words have, or did have until a quite 
recent revision of the spelling, the letters th, which once repre- 
sented the same sound as in English, but are now pronounced 
like a simple /, since the German has lost the other sound. The 
same change is now going on in the pronunciation of some 
people in English ; it is barely possible, for instance, that a 
generation or two from now the distinction between t and th 
will not appear in the language as commonly spoken in New 
York City by the mass of the people. The letter r after vowels 
{e.g.^ in far) has already become silent in New York, as well as 
in other parts of America and England, though it is still pro- 
nounced in our western states. The English generally make 



222 Ejizlish G^^ammar 



^> '■ 



no distinction between w and wk, — pronouncing, for instance, 
witch and which exactly alike/ — though the Americans generally 
do. 

In fact, changes in the pronunciation of sounds are going on 
in all languages, sometimes with great rapidity, and in no lan- 
guage are all the sounds given exactly alike by all the people 
who speak the language. It would therefore be impossible to 
devise a phonetic alphabet which should represent perfectly 
the sounds of the language a generation later, even if all the 
people who speak the language could agree as to which portion 
of them should furnish the standard when the alphabet was 
adopted. 

190. The Relation of the Dictionary to Standard Pro- 
nunciation. — A dictionary can be authoritative in questions of 
pronunciation only to a limited extent. It can say what variety 
of actual pronunciation is to be taken as the standard, and it can 
describe the actual state of that pronunciation at the time of pub- 
lication. Suppose, for instance, that for the French language 
the pronunciation of the better classes in Paris is accepted as 
the standard. A dictionary can say that for any given word each 
sound is pronounced by the better classes in Paris as in some 
other w^ord which is more common and about which there is no 
question. It can then describe these sounds in technical lan- 
guage so that an expert phonetician can get a pretty clear idea 
as to just how they are produced, and what their relation is to 
other sounds in French and in other languages. No person, 
however, who is not an expert phonetician can use this technical 
information. Others can only pronounce the sound in question 
as they believe the better classes in Paris pronounce it. If they 
have the opportunity to hear that pronunciation, they may learn 
to do it themselves. If they have not the opportunity and de- 
pend upon the statement of the dictionary, they will give to the 
sound in any doubtful word the same quality as they do to the 
sound in the key-word ; this may or may not be the sound heard 
in Paris. Moreover, it is almost certain that, fifty years after 
the publication of a dictionary, some of the sounds will have 
changed so much in the usage of the class of people who set 



PJionology 223 

the standard, that what the dictionary says will no longer be 
true. 

Now suppose the pronunciation of the educated class in Lon- 
don were taken as the standard for English. In London, the 
word pass is pronounced with the same vowel sound as is heard 
in the word last^ which is the key-word used by Webster. Prac- 
tically every one who speaks English has the same vowel sound 
in last and pass^ but the Londoner gives in these words the same 
sound as in the word far. Most Americans outside of New Eng- 
land, however, use the same quality of vowel in these words as 
in mail. There are also two special vowels heard in certain 
regions for the set of words to which last and pass belong — a 
vowel between the a mfar and in 7nan, heard in New England, 
and a very high (§ 193) vowel, between the a in man and the e 
in heuy heard in the north of England and occasionally in New 
York. Now suppose a man from Ohio, who has always pro- 
nounced last and man with the same vowel sound, wants to know 
what sound to give in such a word as rather or advantage. He 
sees that the dictionary gives last as the key-word for the sound, 
and if he does not look farther, will pronounce rather and ad- 
vantage. If, however, he studies the matter a little, he will find 
out that the London standard makes rather rhyme with father^ 
and gives the same sound in advantage and a large number of 
other words, which he can learn from the dictionary ; and if he 
works hard enough he can change his usage to conform to that 
of London. He has the London sound in his own speech, and 
has merely to substitute it instead of his own natural pronuncia- 
tion wherever the dictionary prescribes it. 

If our Ohioan should go to New York to live, he would some- 
times be in doubt whether a New Yorker said man or ;;/<?;/, for 
the sound given to the vowel in 7?ian is higher (§ 193) in New 
York than in Ohio. If he went to Tennessee, he would surely 
understand pen when the natives meant pin. for the i is pro- 
nounced so low in Tennessee that it is practically the same as 
the e in Ohio, and very near to the a in New York. A Tennes- 
sean might even understand pin from a New Yorker who meant 
to say pan ; the Ohioan would understand pen in the same case. 
The London standards for a, e, i^ cannot be so described 



224 English Grammar 

or explained, except to an experienced phonetician, that an 
American can know whether his practice conforms to them or 
not. All such fine shades of difference change continually, and 
it is impossible for the dictionary to regulate them in any way, 
though it is useful in indicating the accentuation commonly given 
to words, and in stating which of certain recognized sounds is 
commonly considered appropriate, at the time of compilation, in 
any given case. ' 

191. Vowels and Consonants.— Audible speech is the sound 
heard when the breath passes from the lungs through the mouth 
and nose, modified in various ways by the action of various 
organs, of which the most important are the tongue and the 
vocal cords. 

If the vocal cords vibrate, a musical tone is produced which 
can in some cases be heard at a distance ; if not, only the friction 
of the breath is heard ; but in either case the position of the 
other organs at any single instant gives a sound of distinctive 
quality, which is recognized as a unit and represented by a char- 
acter in a phonetic alphabet. 

The oral passage can be, by the action of the tongue or other 
organs — ; 

(i) Completely closed. 

(2) Closed sufficiently to make secondary any vibration of 
the vocal cords, and impress the ear chiefly by the noise of the 
breath at the point of constriction. 

(3) Left open, but modified so as to give a distinct quality to 
the sound produced by the vocal cords. 

Sounds produced in the last way are called vowels (Lat. voca- 
IzSj from vox^ "voice'') ; e.g., a m father^ o in to7ie^ i m pm, etc. 
Sounds produced in the two other ways are called consonants 
(Lat. co7t^ '^with," and sonans, "sounding"), because they can- 
not be heard at a distance without a vowel to carry them ; e.g.., 
p^ s, I, m, etc. 

192. Classification of Consonant Sounds. — Of the two 

classes of consonants, those under (i) are known as stops^ those 
under (2) as open consonants or spirants. The latter are 
further divided into (^) fricatives., in which the opening is so 



Phonology 225 

narrow that a distinct buzzing or hissing sound is heard (j, sluf), 
and {b) sonorous cojisonants, which approach the vowels in quaHty, 
and sometimes perform the functions of vowels in unaccented 
syllables (/, r, w). Two of these, w and /, are often called 
semivowels. 

Any position of the tongue or lips may be taken and held, 
whether the vocal cords vibrate or not. It follows that for any 
such position there may be two effects produced on the ear ; and 
in practice these effects are so different that they usually have 
different letters to represent them. If the vocal cords vibrate 
during the production of a sound, it is called a sonant or voiced ; 
if not, a surd or voiceless. Compare b, p ; z, s ; th in their and in 
tJmi. In the first sound of each pair there is a vibration which 
can be felt by putting the finger on the ^^ Adam's apple " ; in the 
second there is no such vibration. 

The breath may pass out from the lungs by the nose as 
well as by the mouth. Any sound, vowel or consonant, surd or 
sonant, may be produced with the nasal passage open.i It re- 
quires, however, a larger expenditure of breath than the same 
sound without nasality, and in English the only nasal sounds 
are such as would be stops but for the opening of the nasal 
passage (;;2, n^ ng). These are also sonants, for a nasal surd 
requires a good deal of breath. 

We distinguish certain points at which the stoppage or con- 
striction of the oral passage may take place, and give the sounds 
names according to the place where they are produced. Thus 
the following names of consonants originate : 

(i) Labials (Latin labrnm^ "lip"), divided into (a) bi-labials, 
produced by the two lips, and {U) labio-dentals, in which one lip 
meets the opposite teeth. 

(2) Dentals (Latin dens^ " tooth "), in which the tongue meets 
the upper teeth. 

(3) Alveolar (Latin alveolus^ "gum"), in which the tongue 
meets the ridge behind the upper teeth. 

(4) Palatals., in which the upper surface of the tongue meets 
the roof of the mouth. Those formed farthest back are often 
called gitttnrals (Latin gutttcr^ " throat ") . 

1 In some languages nasal vowels are used regularly. 



226 



English Grammar 



With these few facts, which by no means exhaust the subject, 
we can form the following table of consonant sounds : 









Labial. 




< 

§ 

> 








1 '^ 

^1 


o ^ 
IS "S 


D 
H 
H 
D 
O 


r 

stops <( 

I 




sonant 


b 






d 


g 


cr 


surd 


P 






t 


k 


k 




fricatives 


sonant 




V 


th 


z 


zh 




1 

open < 


surd 




f 


th 


s 


sh 




sonorous 


^ sonant 








1 


r 




^ 


surd 
















nasal 


sonant 


m 






n 


. 


ng 




semivowels 




w 








y 





Some of the blank spaces in the table, which gives only Eng- 
lish sounds, may be filled by sounds occurring in other languages. 
For instance, bi-labial and guttural spirants are quite common, 
and many languages pronounce d, /, /, and ?i as dentals and not 
as alveolars.i 

193. Classification of Vowel Sounds. — The vowels are 
named according to the part of the tongue which is raised in 
pronouncing them. Thus, a fro7tt vowel is produced by raising 
the front of the tongue toward the " palatal " region of the roof of 
the mouth, and a back vowel by raising the back part toward the 
^^ guttural" region. If the middle part, between these two, is 
raised, there is produced what is called a mixed vowel. These 
are again subdivided, according to the amount of the elevation 
of the part of the tongue used, into high^ mid^ and low vowels of 

1 There are many further and finer distinctions which cannot be 
touched upon here. They may be studied in the standard works of 
reference. See Appendix, V. 



Phonology 227 

each class. Of course, such terms represent only certain shades 
out of an infinite number possible. No two persons give exactly 
the same shade to any vowel, and all vowels are likely to be 
affected by neighboring sounds, so that one person does not 
always give the same shade to the same vowel. But if any 
American wdll watch his tongue in a mirror as he pronounces the 
following vowels in order, he will see that the front part of it 
takes a lower position for each succeeding vowel : ee in feet^ i in 
pin^ a in station^ e in pen^ a in 7}ian. These are the front 
vowels. The tongue-positions for the back vowels are less easy 
to observe, partly because those vowels are generally ^'rounded" 
(see below), and the lips interfere with the view. They are, in 
order from high to low : 'oo in fool^ 00 in wood^ o in to7ie^ o in 
not^ a in father} a in all. A low-mixed vowel is u in bid. If 
almost any vowel is pronounced negligently, the tendency is to 
raise the usual part of the tongue less high than for the clear 
pronunciation of the vowel, and thus a mixed vowel is produced. 

In unaccented syllables, in rapid and careless pronunciation, 
almost all the vowels in English may be, and generally are, re- 
placed by a mid-mixed, or '^ neutral," vowel. The front vowels 
are oftener replaced by a weak ^^ short /," though usage in this 
m.atter varies with individuals and locality. In any unaccented 
syllable the tongue may take any position between that which 
would be used for the vowel of that syllable if under full accent, 
and the ^' neutral" position. DiiTerent speakers show great in- 
dividual variations in this matter. The general tendency in 
English is to use the tongue as wtII as the lips rather passively 
in pronouncing all vowels, so that our vowels have not so clear 
and distinctive a quality as those of the German and Italian, for 
instance. 

The quality of a vowel may be greatly affected by pursing or 
"rounding" the lips. In particular, the back: vowels receive a 
much more distinctive quality if this is done, and in most lan- 
guages they are thus "rounded." In English this is much less 
done than in most other languages, but even in English 00 and 
are generally somewhat rounded. In many languages there are 

1 Identical in quality in most parts of the United States. 



228 E7iglish Grammar 

pairs of vowels distinguished only by rounding (as i and m in 
French, ie and u in German). In some varieties of English the 
a m father and the a in all pair in this way, but there are no such 
pairs of vowels in the usual iVmerican pronunciation. 

194. Diphthongs. — Two vowel sounds may be pronounced 
with one impulse of the voice, or in one syllable, as oi in void, 
ou in loud. Our sound of / in pine is really a diphthong 
( = <2 + 2") ; so is the u in acute ( = / + do) . Many words are 
printed with two vowels in one syllable which are now pro- 
nounced as a simple vowel {east, breath, could). On the other 
hand, some of our long vowel sounds are, in the pronunciation of 
many people, real diphthongs {a in day = e -\- i ; m no = 
+ 00; o in do = 3. high-mixed vowel -f 00). 

EXERCISE 

In the passage from Macaulay quoted on page 216, classify 
the consonants and vowels, with the aid of the teacher, in accord- 
ance with the divisions given in §§ 192, 193. 



Prefixes and Stiffixes 229 



II. PREFIXES AND SUFFIXES 

195. Inflection, Composition, and Derivation. — In Chapter 
IV. we noticed the distinction between inflection, composition, 
and derivation. Inflection we have already treated in connec- 
tion with the noun, the pronoun, the adjective, the verb, and the 
adverb. There are no principles relating to composition that 
are of value to the young student except this, that in English 
compounds the first part may almost invariably be properly con- 
sidered as a modifier, e.g.^ bookcase-, i.e., not any case, but a case 
for books, as distinguished from a watchcase or a guncase ; ma7i- 
hater, as distinguished from w^oman-hater ; vi2ile-driver, oxcart^ 
double-dyed, flesh-colored, etc. The first part of the compound 
thus has the force of an adjective or adverb. The exceptions 
consist mostly of words like viaii-of-war, brother-in-law, in 
which the second part is an adjective-phrase. The student is 
referred to a standard dictionary for further information as to 
the meaning and history of compound forms. Under the head 
of derivation we must consider briefly the common prefixes and 
suffixes. 

196. Prefixes and Suffixes. — Prefixes and suffixes are the 
monosyllables or dissyllables which are added to a w^ord either 
at the beginning (prefixes) or at the end (suffixes), and w^hich 
alter radically the meaning of a w^ord {e.g., pre^x, suffix), some- 
times changing it from one part of speech to another {e.g., 7naii, 
noun ; 77ianly, adjective). Some prefixes and suffixes are of Old 
English origin ; some are from the Greek, Latin, and French. 
The greater part are Latin. Prefixes and suffixes which we still 
use in forming new words, or still feel the force of in old words, 
we may call livi^tg. Those which we no longer use in forming 
new words, and no longer feel the force of in old words, we may 
call dead. 



230 English Grammar 

197. Dead Prefixes and Suffixes. — By far the majority of 
prefixes and suffixes have so completely lost their force that we 
no longer use them in forming new words, and unless we know 
the languages from which they originally came, scarcely recog- 
nize them as having a separate meaning. Such are the Old 
English prefix /"^r vn forgiven and the Latin prefix ab in abhor. It 
would be unwise for students who are not acquainted with Old 
English or the classical languages to burden their feiemories with 
lists of these dead prefixes and suffixes, which are fully described 
in the dictionaries and in works dealing with the history of the 
language. Pupils who have studied Latin, however, should have 
their attention called to the use made in English of the many 
common Latin prefixes : ab (abs, ^), "from, away" {abrupt^ ab- 
sco7id, avej'f) ; ad (a, ag, af etc.), "to" {adve^it^ aggravate^ 
affable)] amb {a77i)^ "around" {ambition^ amputate) ; cisy "on 
this side of" {^cis- Alpine) ; de, " from, away " (degrade) ; ex (<?, ef)^ 
"out of" {exte7idj erect ^ effort).; 7ie^ "not"' (7tefarions) ; ob (osj 
Oj oc) " towards " (oblo7igj oste7tsiblej 077iit, occasion) ; per, 
"through" (pervade) ; pre, "before" (precept); pro (prod), 
"before, forth, away from," etc. (prohibit, prodigal) ; re (red), 
"back, repetition" (repeat, redee77i) ; se (sed), "apart" (secede, 
sedition) ; si7ie, "without" (si7iecnre) ; snb (sue, sug, etc.), "un- 
der," etc. (subscribe) ; subter, " under " (subterfuge) ; trans 
(tra), "across, through, beyond" (tra7isient, trad^ice). 

Pupils who study Latin should also notice the following facts 
with regard to the formation of nouns and adjectives by means 
of Latin suffixes. The abstract Latin endings, tia, cia, are repre- 
sented in English by cy, sy (e.g., C07ista7icy) ; io by io7i (for 771a- 
tion) ; tas by ty (liberty) ; itudo by itude (beatitude) . The Latin 
atus, signifying office or function, has become ate (episcopate) ; 
the Latin (t)ura has become tire (figure). The Latin (t)or, 
indicating the actor, is retained in such words as e77iperor, gover- 
nor. The Latin or of abstract nouns, e.g.., splendor, is used in 
such words as valor, honor, etc. In British English these words 
usually retain the French form our. The Latin verb-ending 
ficare appears in the English 75^ (fortify). The following Latin 
adjective endings are retained in English : bills becomes ble 
(noble) ; icus, ic (satiric) ; alls, at (7iatural) ; His, it or He 



Prefixes and Suffixes 231 

{hostile) ; amis^ an or ane (Jiuinari) ; ianiis^ ian {barbarian) ; 
iniis^ me {saline) ; ans or ens^ ant or ent {arrogant^ ejninent) ; 
aris, ar {familiar) ; arins, ary {extraordinary) ; ior, ior {in- 
ferior) ; osiiSj ose or ons {verbose^ glorious) . Our abstract end- 
ing ry {chivalry) comes from the French rie^ which is derived 
from the late Latin. Our diminutives in ide {globule), cnle {ani- 
malcnle), et {cabinet), let {streamlet) also come from the Latin, 
as well as our nouns ending in ment {instrtwient) . 

Pupils who study Greek should notice the force in EngHsh of 
the following Greek prefixes : an or a, '^ not " {anarchy, atheist) ; 
amphi, '^ around'^ {amphitheatre) ; apo, ^'from^' iP'pology) ; cata, 
"down" {cataract)', di, *^^ twice'' {dilemma)', dia, "through" 
{diagnosis) ; en, " in " {energy) ; epi, " upon " {epilogtie) ; ex, 
"out of" {exodits) ; hypo, "under" {hypocrite); meta, "with" 
{inetafuorphosis) ; para, " beside " {paragraph) ; pro^ " before " 
{prologue); syn, "with" {synagogue). 

Many of the Latin and Greek prefixes mentioned above, and a 
few suffixes, are still used in the formation of new scientific 
terms. One is helped in understanding scientific nomenclature, 
to a slight degree, by knowing the meaning of these prefixes and 
suffixes, but this knowledge is of little value unless it is accom- 
panied by an equal knowledge, of the many Latin or Greek words 
or roots to which they are added. 

EXERCISE 

With the aid of the teacher, pick out, in the first paragraph of 
the exercise following § 188, as many instances as possible of 
(i) inflection, (2) composition, (3) derivation. Let pupils who 
have studied Latin or Greek point out the force of the prefixes 
and suffixes in as many as possible of the instances of derivation. 

198. Living Prefixes of English Origin. — There are 
only two prefixes of English origin that we still apply freely to 
new words, mis (as in 77iisdeed) and im {^mfinished), the former 
with the force of the adjective "bad," and the latter with the 
force of a negative. We no longer feel the force of be in begin 
and similar words. We still recognize its force as a prefix, how- 
ever, when it is used to make verbs from nouns and adjectives, 



232 English Grammar 

e.g., belittle, bedi?n, befog, bemoan, behead. As living prefixes 
we may also class, by, out, and off, e.g., byplay, byway, byword, 
offhand, offshoot, offsprmg; outcome, outlet, outrtm. It should 
be remarked, however, that by, off, and out exist as separate 
words, and that the process of forming words in which they 
occur may also be regarded as composition. 

199. Living Prefixes of Latin or Greek Origin. — From 

the Latin we have the living prefixes, ante, '' before " (anteroom) ; 
bi, *^half'' or "^Hwice" {biennial)', circum, '^around'' (circtmi- 
navigate) ; co7i or co, "with" (co-operate); contra (counter), 
"- against " (contradict, counter-irritant) ; dis, with a negative 
force (disinherit) ; ex, " out of" (ex-president) ; extra, "beyond" 
(extraordinary) ; in (im), negative (irnpossible) ; inter, " be- 
tween " (interstate) ; intro, " within " (introspective) ; non, 
negative (nonsense) ; post, "after" (postgraduate) ; /r^, "before" 
(prefix); praeter, "beyond", {preternatural); re, implying 
repetition (recall); retro, "behind" (retroactive) ; semi, "half" 
(semicircle) ; siib, " under " {sub-agent) ; super, " over " (super- 
cargo) ; trans, "beyond" (transatlantic) ; ultra, "beyond,"/.^., 
excessive (ultra-rational) ; and through the French, deini, "half" 
(demigod). From the Greek we have anti, "against" (aiiti- 
Christian); diVid hyper, "over" (hyper-sensitive). 

200. Living SuflSxes of English Origin. — We still feel 
the force of the English suffixes er,^ denoting the actor or agent, 
e.g., driver ; hood, indicating rank or condition (boyhood) ; kin 
and ling, diminutives (lainbkin, yearling) ; ness, ship, and th, 
indicating abstract nouns (loveli^iess, friendship, truth) ; and the 
adjective and adverb endings en, fold, full, ish, less, ly, some, 
ward, and y (goldeji, ?nanifold, tuneful, oldish, helpless, manly, 
lonesoine, homeward, 77tighty). 

201. Living Suffixes of Foreign Origin. — We still feel 
the force of a number of suffixes of foreign origin. These are: 
(\) ee (French), added to nouns to denote, usually, the person 

1 Often difficult to distinguish from equivalent suffixes of Latin 
origin, e.g., barber, officer. See § 201, 2. 



Prefixes and Suffixes 233 

who takes a passive share in an action ; e.g.^ employee (as dis- 
tinguished from employer)^ grantee^ legatee^ viortgagee (as dis- 
tinguished from grantor^ legator^ mortgager), trustee, referee. 
(2) or, ar, er, eer, ier (from the Latin, through the French), denot- 
ing a person who performs a certain act or function \e.g., emperor, 
scholar, officer, 7mdeteer, g07idolier. (See the preceding section 
and note i.) (3) ess, as a feminine ending. This can be con- 
sidered as an inflectional ending. (See § 36, and compare trix, 
§ 36? 3-) (4) ^^^? from the Greek, through the Latin, denoting 
persons belonging to certain places, nations, parties, or sects ; 
eg., Jacobite^ Israelite. (5) ese, from the Latin, forming adjec- 
tives from names of countries, e.g., Portiigicese ; also from nouns 
denoting kinds of literary style, e.g., Johfisonese, Bostoiiese. 
(6) ist, from the Greek, denoting a person who follows a certain 
trade or pursuit, or who belongs to a certain party or sect; e.g., 
chemist, nihilist, theosophist. (7) ism, from the Greek, forming 
abstract nouns; e.g., patriotis77i, presbyterianism. (8) ble, from 
the Latin, forming adjectives that have usually a passive sense ; 
e.g., tolerable^ bearable, i.e., that which can be tolerated, can be 
borne. (9) ize or ise^ from the Greek, forming verbs from nouns 
and adjectives ; e.g., crystallize, galvanize, hypnotize. 

EXERCISE 

In the exercise following § 188, point out, with the aid of the 
teacher, the force of as many as possible of the prefixes and suf- 
fixes, forming, where it is possible, other words from those given 
in the text, by means of the prefixes and suffixes mentioned in 
§§ 198-201. 



234 English Grammar 



III. METRE 

202. Difference between Poetry and Prose An English. 

— In fornij English poetry may differ from prose in that it is 
rhymed. Whether it be rhymed or not, however, poetry is 
always metrical or rhythmical, that is, the word-accents occur in 
a regular or approximately regular order ; e.g.^ '^ Old Mother 
Hubh^xdj she weiit to the ^?/^board/' a line in which the first, 
fourth, seventh, and tenth syllables are accented. Poetry thus 
differs externally from prose, in which little care is usually taken 
wdth regard to the order in which accented syllables occur. 

203. Lines and Feet. — Poetry consists of series of lines 
or verses. Each line consists of a number of groups of syllables, 
called feet, each group containing one and only one strongly 
accented syllable. In each group, moreover, the accented 
syllable occurs, as a rule, in the same place. For instance, in 
" So Hec I tor spake ; \ the Tro \ jans roared \ 2i-^plause^'' there are 
five feet, in each of which the accent falls on the second syllable. 
In " This is the \for^'sX pri|;//^val. The | //^^rmuring \pines and 
the I >^^;;^locks,'' there are six feet, in each of which the accent 
falls on the first syllable. It should be noticed that, in a given 
line or group of lines, the time given to the pronunciation of 
each foot is the same. Compare a measure in music. 

EXERCISE 

Indicate the accents in the following lines and mark off the 

feet. 

(i) O Sohtude ! where are the charms 

That sages have seen in thy face ? 

(2) The curfew tolls the knell of parting day. 
The lowing herd wind slowly o'er the lea. 



Metre ' 235 

(3) O ! it was pitiful, 
Near a whole city full, 
Home she had none. 

(4) Slowly and sadly we laid him down. 

From the field of his fame fresh and gory ; 
We carved not a line, and we raised not a stone, — 
But we left him alone in his glory. 

(5) Like a poet hidden 

In the light of thought. 
Singing hymns unbidden. 

Till the world is wrought 
To sympathy with hopes and fears it heeded not. 

204. Kinds of Feet. — Feet may consist of one, two, or three 

syllables. In 

Break, | break, | break,^ 

On thy cold \ gray stones^ \ O sea ! 

the three feet that compose the first line consist of one syllable 
each. In the second line the first foot has three syllables, the 
second and third have two. Feet commonly consist of two or 
three syllables, and are of two kinds : (i) those in which the ac- 
cent comes at the beginning, (2) those in which the accent comes 
at the end. See the examples given below. 

(la) Af tisic I w/ien soft [ voices \ die 
F/brates | in the 1 7nemo\xy.'^ 

{lb) O;^^ more un|/J?r/unate, 
Weary of | breath. 
Rashly im|/^r^unate, 
Go7te to her | death. 

(2a) The sun \ that brief] Deceni\h&Y day 
Rose cheer\^ess o\\ex hills \ oi gray, 

1 Some prefer to consider such a foot as composed of two or three 
syllables, on the ground that the single syllable is pronounced in the 
time that is usually allotted to two or three. Cf. a whole note in music. 

2 This syllable is only lightly accented, because here the verse accent 
falls on a syllable that would not be accented in ordinary pronunciation. 



236 English Graimnar 

{2b) For a /<^^|gard in love^ \ and a das\^2xd. in Tf^r 

Was to wed\ the fair if/llen of <^r<«7/^ | Lochin^/^r. 

Feet of two syllables are called trochaic or iambic, according 
as the accent falls on the first or second syllable. In {\a) all the 
feet except the last in each line are trochaic ; in {2d) all the feet 
are iambic. Feet of three syllables are called dactylic or ana- 
pestic, according as the accent falls on the first or t^ird syllable. 
In {\b) all the feet, except the last in the second and fourth lines, 
are dactylic. In {2b) all the feet are anapestic. Instead of ap- 
plying to feet the adjectives trochaic, dactylic, iambic, and ana- 
pestic, we may call them trochees, dactyls, iambs, and anapests. 
All these terms come from the classical languages, and it is 
unfortunate that we have not simple English equivalents that 
can be used in their place. 

EXERCISE 

Classify the feet in the exercise following § 203. 

205. Kinds of Lines. — Lines are classified according to the 
number of feet or accents which they contain. The following 
quotations illustrate lines of from one to eight feet in length : 

(i) And what \ will the rob\vcv do then^ 
Voox thing? 

(2) Z//tle Miss I Mtifiei 
Sat on a | tiifiet. 

(3) Red as a | rose is | she. 

(4) The sun \ came 7cp \ upon \ the left, 

(5) The day \ is come \ and tho2^ \ wilty^ | with me ! 

(6) I^ar above | <5>cean and | shore, and the | peaks of the | isles and 

the I ;//<^/;^lands . 

(7) And all\ the signs \ in heaven \ are seen \ th2it glad \ the shep- \ 

herd's heart. 

(8) G?;>^rades, | leave me | here a | little \ while as \yet 'tis | ^^rly | 

7norn. 

A line may be further described as trochaic, iambic, dactylic, or 
anapestic, in accordance with its general character. Thus (3), 



Metre 237 

above, may be called a dactylic line of three feet ; (6) a dactylic 
line of six feet (or an hexameter) ; (4), (5), and (7) iambic lines 
of four, five, and seven feet respectively. (8) is a trochaic line 
of eight feet. The first line of (i) is virtually an anapestic 
line of three feet, though the first foot is an iamb ; the second 
line consists of one foot, an iamb. (2) is both dactylic and 
trochaic. 

EXERCISE 

Classify, so far as possible, all the lines quoted in §§ 202-204, 
and those given in the preceding exercise. 

206. Means of Avoiding Monotony in Verse, — It should 
be remembered that a poet's object is to present his thoughts in 
the most appropriate musical form, not to follow slavishly any 
mechanical system of arranging syllables and accents. It will be 
readily seen that the great danger attending the use of metre is 
that of producing, by regularity of accentuation, a monotonous 
effect. This is avoided in three ways : 

(i) By employing a metrical system which combines lines of 
different lengths or different sorts. Thus in {a) below, though 
all the lines are iambic, the first consists of five feet ; the second, 
of four ; the third, of two ; the fourth, of four again ; and the 
fifth, like the first, of five. 

(a) There was a time when meadow, grove, and stream. 
The earth and every common sight, 
To me did seem 
Appareird in celestial light. 
The glory and the freshness of a dream. 

— Wordsworth : Intimations of Immortality . 

(2) By combining in the same line feet of different sorts. 
Thus the general character of Keats's Ode to a Nightingale is 
iambic, as in the stanza : 

Thou wast not born for death, immortal bird ! 

No hungry generations tread thee down ; 
The voice I hear this passing night was heard 

In ancient days by emperor and clown : 



238 English Grammar 

Perhaps the self-same song that found a path 

Through the sad heart of Ruth, when, sick for home, 
She stood in tears amid the aUen corn ; 
The same that oft-times hath 
Charmed magic casements^ opening on the foam 
Of perilous seas, in faery lands forlorn. 

Here the feet not iambic are the first foot of the sixth line, a 
trochee ; and the second foot of the last hne, an anapest. But 
in many other lines of the poem the danger of monotony is 
avoided by more frequent substitutions of another sort of foot for 
an iamb, e.g. : 

O for a draught of vintage, that hath been 
CooPd a long age in the deep-delved earth, 

Tasting of Flora and the country-green, 

Dance, and Provengal song, and sun-burnt mirth ! 

for a beaker full of the warm South, 
Full of the true, the blushful Hippocrene. 

Here all the lines open with dactyls or trochees. 

(3) By allowing a pause necessary to the sense (called the 
verse-pause or caesura) to fall now in one part of the line, now 
in another. This is especially noticeable in unrhymed verse 
(blank verse). In the following passages, notice in what differ- 
ent feet the verse-pause, as denoted by the punctuation, falls : 

At break of day | the College Portress came : 

She brought us Academic silks, | in hue 

The lilac, \ with a silken hood to each. 

And zoned with gold ; | and now when these were on, 

And we as rich as moths from dusk cocoons. 

She, [ curtseying her obeisance, | let us know 

The Princess Ida waited : | out we paced, 

1 first, I and following thro' the porch that sang 
All round with laurel, | issued in a court 
Compact of lucid marbles, | boss'd with lengths 
Of classic frieze, | with ample awnings gay 
Betwixt the pillars, | and with great urns of flowers. 

— Tennyson : T/ie Princess. 



MeU^e 239 

207. Hovering Accent. — It frequently happens in verse, 
particularly in a foot of two syllables, that the rhythmical or 
verse accent falls on one syllable, and what may be called an 
accent of sense or meaning on another. Thus, the opening lines 
of the third stanza of Wordsworth's Ode on Intimations of l7?i- 
mortality^ which are intended to be iambic^ should, metrically, 
be read as follows : 

Now, while \ the birds \ thus sing \ ay<9/jous song^ 
And while \ the young \ lambs bound. 

But now., in the first foot of the first line, and lambs, in the last foot 
of the second line, must also, for the sake of the sense, receive an 
accent. We therefore read the lines : 

Now., while-\ the birds \ thus sing\ a/^/ious song^ 
And while \ the yotuig \ la?nbs bound. 

In such cases, an accent may be said to be given to both syllables, 
or to hover between them. 

EXERCISE 

Note the, accents, and classify the feet, in the following lines. 
In what cases has the author avoided monotony by the means 
mentioned in §§ 205 and 206? 

Our birth is but a sleep and a forgetting ; 
The Soul that rises with us, our life's Star, 
Hath had elsewhere its setting 

And cometh from afar ; 
Not in entire forgetfulness, 
And not in utter nakedness. 
But trailing clouds of glory do we come 

From God, who is our home : 
Heaven lies about us in our infancy ! 
Shades of the prison-house begin to close 

Upon the growing boy, 
But he beholds the light, and whence it flows, 

He sees it in his joy ; 
The youth, who daily farther from the east 
Must travel, still is Nature's priest. 



240 English Grammar 

And by the vision splendid 

Is on his way attended ; 
At length the man perceives it die away, 
And fade into the light of common day. 

— Wordsworth : Ode on Intimations of hmnortality, 

208. Stanzas. — Stanzas are groups of lines arranged system- 
atically. The system is based on the length or chi.racter of the 
lines, on the rhymes, or on both. For example, in the stanza 
quoted below, the first and third lines rhyme, and have four feet ; 
the second and fourth rhyme, and have three feet. 

We cross the prairie as of old 

The pilgrims crossed the sea. 
To make the West, as they the East, 

The homestead of the free. 

— Whittier : The Kansas Emigrants. 

A stanza of two rhyming lines is called a couplet. A stanza 
of four lines, rhyming or not rhyming, is called a quatrain. For 
a longer stanza, see that from Wordsworth quoted on page 239. 
There are many stanzas in English consisting of more than four 
lines, with more or less intricate systems of rhymes. Few of 
them have set names. Only one, the sonnet, is common, and 
that is rather a short poem of fourteen lines, rhymed according 
to a curious system, than a stanza. 



h'regular Verbs 



241 



IV. TABLE OF IRREGULAR VERBS 

[The following table gives the principal parts of all the verbs 
in common use that exhibit irregularities. Forms in parenthesis 
are considerably less common than those not in parenthesis. Of 
two forms not in parenthesis the former is thought to be the more 
common. Some of the forms in parenthesis occur only in archaic 
English. The defective verbs (§ 104) are not included. For 
past participle forms in eii^ see page 143, note i.] 



Present. 


Past. 


Past Participle. 


abide 


abode 


abode 


alight 1 


alit, alighted 


alit, alighted 


arise 


arose 


arisen 


awake 


awoke, awaked 


awaked, aw^oke 


be 


was 


been 


bear 


bore (bare) 


borne (active), born 
(passive) 


beat 


beat 


beaten 


begin 


began (begun) 


begun 


bend 


bent (bended) 


bent (bended) 


bereave 


bereft (bereaved) 


bereft (bereaved) 


beseech 


besought (beseeched) 


besought (beseeched) 


bet 


bet (betted) 


bet (betted) 


bid 


bade (bad), bid 


bidden, bid 


bind 


bound 


bound (bounden) 


bite 


bit 


bitten, bit 


bleed 


bled 


bled 


bless 


blessed, blest 


blessed, blest 


blow 


blew 


blown 


break 


broke (brake) 


broken 


breed 


bred 


bred 


bring 


brought 


brought 



1 See light (to descend). 



242 


English Grammar 


build 


built (builded) 


built (builded) 


burn 


burned (burnt) 


burned (burnt) 


burst 


burst (bursted) 


burst (bursted) 


buy 


bought 


bought 


cast 


cast 


cast 


catch 


caught 


caught 


chide 


chid 


chidden, chid 


choose 


chose 


chosen^ 


cleave (to cling) 


cleaved, clave 


cleaved 


cleave (to split) 


clove (clave), cleaved, 


clove, cloven, cleft. 




cleft 


cleaved 


cling 


clung 


clung 


clothe 


clothed (clad) 


clothed (clad) 


come 


came 


come 


cost 


cost . 


cost 


creep 


crept 


crept 


crow 


crowed (crew) 


crowed 


cut 


cut 


cut 


dare^ 


dared, durst 


dared 


deal 


dealt 


dealt 


dig 


dug (digged) 


dug (digged) 


dive 


dived, dove 


dived 


do 


did 


done 


draw 


drew 


drawn 


dream 


dreamt, dreamed 


dreamt, dreamed 


dress 


dressed, drest 


dressed, drest 


drink 


drank (drunk) 


drunk, drunken 
(drank) 


drive 


drove 


driven 


dwell 


dwelt (dwelled) 


dwelt (dwelled) 


eat 


ate (eat, pronounced et) 


eaten (eat) 


fall 


fell 


fallen 


feed 


fed 


fed 


feel 


felt 


felt 


fight 


fought 


fought 


find 


found 


found 


1 The third person singular of the present 


is either da^^e or dares. 



Dare is also sometimes used as a past tense. 



Irregular Verbs 



243 



flee 


fled 


fled 


fling 


flung 


flung 


fly 


flew 


flown 


forbear 


forbore 


forborne 


forget 


forgot (forgat) 


forgotten, forgot 


forsake 


forsook 


forsaken 


freeze 


froze 


frozen 


get 


got 


got, gotten 


gilded 


gilded (gilt) 


gilded (gilt) 


gird 


girt/ girded 


girt, girded 


give 


gave 


given 


go 


went 


gone 


grind 


ground 


ground 


grave 


graved 


graved, graven 


grow 


grew 


grown 


hang 


hung, hanged 


hung, hanged 


have 


had 


had 


hear 


heard 


heard 


heave 


heavedj hove 


heaved 


hew 


hewed 


hewed, hewn 


hide 


hid 


hidden, hid 


hit 


hit 


hit 


hold 


held 


held (holden) 


hurt 


hurt 


hurt 


keep 


kept 


kept 


kneel 


knelt, kneeled 


knelt, kneeled 


knit 


knitted, knit 


knitted, knit 


know 


knew 


known 


lade 


laded 


laded, laden 


lay 


laid 


laid 


lead 


led 


led 


lean 


leaned (leant) 


leaned (leant) 


leap 


leaped (leapt) 


leaped (leapt) 


learn 


learned, learnt 


learned, learnt 


leave 


left 


left 


lend 


lent 


lent 


let 


let 


let 


lie (to incline) 


lay 


lain 



244 



English Grammar 



light (to 


I shine, 


lighted, 


lit 


lighted, ht 


illuminate) 








light (to descend) lit, lighted 


lit, lighted 


lose 




lost 




lost 


make 




made 




made 


mean 




meant 




meant 


meet 




met 




met 


mow 




mowed 




mowed, mown 


need 




needed, 


need^ 


needed 


pay 




paid 




paid 


pen (to 


inclose) 


penned (pent) 


penned (pent) 


plead 




pleaded, plead (pro- 
nounced pled) 


pleaded, plead 


put 




put 




put 


quit 




quit, quitted 


quit, quitted 


read 




read 




read 


reave 




reaved. 


reft . 


reaved, reft 


reeve 




reeved, 


rove 


reeved, rove, roven 


rend 




rent 




rent 


rid 




rid 




rid 


ride 




rode 




ridden 


ring 




rang, rung 


rung 


rise 




rose 




risen 


rive 




rived 




rived, riven 


run 




ran 




run 


say 




said 




said 


see 




saw 




seen 


seek 




sought 




sought 


seethe 




seethed 


(sod) 


seethed (sodden) 


sell 




sold 




sold 


send 




sent 




sent 


set 




set 




set 


sew 




sewed 




sewed, sewn 


shape 




shaped 




shaped (shapen) 


shave 




shaved 




shaved (shaven) 


shear 




sheared, 


, shore 


sheared, shorn 


1 In negative constructions, e.g., " he need 


not have done so"; cf., 


"he could not have done so.' 


i> 





Irregular Verbs 



245 



shed 


shed 


shed 


shine 


shone (shined) 


shone (shined) 


shoe 


shod 


shod 


shoot 


shot 


shot 


show 


showed 


shown, showed 


shred 


shred, shredded 


shred, shredded 


shrive 


shrived 


shrived, shriyen 


shrink 


shrank, shrunk 


shrunk 


shut 


shut 


shut 


sing 


sang, sung 


sung 


sink 


sank, sunk 


sunk, sunken 


sit 


sat (sate) 


sat 


slay 


slew 


slain 


sleep 


slept 


slept 


slide 


slid 


slid (slidden) 


sling 


slung 


slung 


slink 


slank, slunk 


slunk 


slit 


slit 


slit 


smell 


smelled, smelt 


smelled, smelt 


smite 


smote, smit 


smitten, smit 


sow 


sowed 


sown, sowed 


speak 


spoke (spake) 


spoken 


speed 


sped, speeded 


sped, speeded 


spell 


spelled, spelt 


spelled, spelt 


spend 


spent 


spent 


spill 


spilled, spilt 


spilled, spilt 


spin 


spun (span) 


spun 


spit 


spit, spat 


spat 


split 


split 


split 


spoil 


spoiled, spoilt 


spoiled, spoilt 


spread 


spread 


spread 


spring 


sprang, sprung 


sprung 


stand 


stood 


stood 


stave 


staved, stove 


staved, stove 


stay 


staid, stayed 


staid, stayed 


steal 


stole 


stolen 


stick 


stuck 


stuck 


sting 


stung (stang) 


stung 



246 


English Grammar 


stink 


stank, stunk 


stunk 


stride 


strode 


stridden (strid) 


strike 


struck 


struck (stricken) 


string 


strung 


strung 


strive 


strove 


striven 


strew (strow) 


strewed 


strewn (strown), 
strewed 


swear 


swore (sware) 


sw^orn ^ 


sweat 


sweat, sweated 


sweat, sw^eated 


sweep 


swept 


swept 


swell 


swelled 


swelled (swollen) 


swim 


swam, sAvum 


swum 


swing 


sw^ung, swang 


swung 


take 


took 


taken 


teach 


taught ^ 


taught 


tear 


tore (tare) 


torn 


tell 


told 


told 


think 


thought 


thought 


thrive 


throve, thrived 


thriven, thrived 


throw 


threw 


thrown 


thrust 


thrust 


thrust 


tread 


trod 


trod, trodden 


wake 


woke, waked 


woke, waked 


wax 


waxed 


waxed (waxen) 


wear 


wore (ware) 


w^orn 


weave 


wove (weaved) 


woven (w^ove, 
weaved) 


wed 


wedded (wed) 


wedded (Aved) 


weep 


wept 


wept 


wet 


wet, wetted 


wet, wetted 


whet 


whet, whetted 


whet, whetted 


win 


won 


won 


wdnd 


wound 


wound 


work 


worked, wrought 


worked, wrought 


wring 


wrung 


wrung 


write 


wrote (writ) 


written (writ) 



Sicggestions for Teachers 247 



V. SUGGESTIONS FOR TEACHERS 

It is suggested that pupils have access to a good unabridged 
dictionary (the Century, the Standard, the International, or 
Worcester's), and be advised to consult it whenever they feel 
the need of more definite information about the form, history, or 
uses of any particular word or expression. The larger diction- 
aries are obviously best for this purpose. Pupils should be 
encouraged to refer likewise to good modern text-books on 
Grammar, e.g.^ Whitney's Essentials of English Granunar 
(Ginn & Co.), Baskervill and SewelPs E7iglish Gramniar 
(American Book Co.), West's English G7'a7nmar (The Mac- 
millan Co.), MaxwelPs Advanced Less oris in English Granunar 
(American Book Co.). Lounsbury's History of the Eriglish Laii- 
guage (revised edition, Henry Holt & Co., 1896), and either 
Emerson's History of the Englishc Language or his Brief His- 
tory of the English Language (The Macmillan Co.), may also be 
consulted with advantage on historical points. 

Teachers will find more detailed and technical information in 
the great New English Dictioiiary (Clarendon Press), and in the 
larger authoritative works on English grammar, chief among 
which are Maetzner's monumental Eriglische Graininatik (3 vols., 
third edition, Berlin, 1880, about $10; the English translation, 
published by Murray, 1874, is hard to get), and Sweet's New 
English Gra7n?nar (Part i. : Introduction, Phonology, and Acci- 
dence ; Clarendon Press, i ^92) . The former is valuable mainly 
for its great mass of illustrative material, the latter for its system. 
Convenient also for reference with regard to system are Bain's 
Higher Eriglish Gra7n77iar and Co77ipositio7i Gra7Ji7?iar (Henry 
Holt & Co.), though both are exceedingly dogmatic in tone and 
method. Other helpful works of reference are : Johan Storm's 
E7iglische Philologie (2 vols., Leipzig, 1896) ; Jespersen's Prog- 
ress i7i La7iguage, with special refereiice to Eriglish (The Mac- 
millan Co., 1894) ; Sweet's Short Historical E7iglish Gra7n7nar 



248 EnglisJi Graiitinar 

and Primer of Spoken English (Clarendon Press) ; Henry^s 
Short Comparative Graminar of English and Gerjnan (The 
Macmillan Co., 1894) ; Earle's English Philology (The Macmillan 
Co.) ; Skeat's Pri^iciples of English Etymology^ first and second 
series (The Macmillan Co.) ; Morris's Historical Outli7ies of 
English Accidence^ revised edition (The Macmillan Co., 1896) ; 
Kellner's Histo7'ical Outlines of Efiglish Syntax (The Macmillan 
Co.) ; Abbott's Shakespearian Grainmar (The ^tacmillan Co.) ; 
Abbott's Hozu to Parse ^ An Attempt to apply the P?'inciples of 
Scholarship to English Gra7nmar (an interesting attempt to treat 
our language as if it were Latin, Roberts Brothers) ; Wright- 
son's Exainination of the Fiuictional Elejnents of the English 
Sentence (The Macmillan Co.) ; Mason's English Grammar (a 
standard British text-book, The Macmillan Co.); Fitzedward 
Hall's Modern English. {^qx^tl^x^ 1873, out of print) ; Williams's 
Our Dictionaries and Other English Language Topics and Some 
Questions of Good English (Henry Holt & Co.). The last three 
volumes concern chiefly doubtful points of modern usage. 

Teachers may also profit by some of the recent articles on the 
teaching of grammar in the various educational journals. Among 
these may be particularly mentioned Mr. Barbour's History of 
English GrajJimar Teachings Educatio?ial Review ^ December, 
1896; Miss Buck's interesting article, The Sentence-Diagra^n^ 
considered from the point of view of psychology. Ibid., March, 
1897; Professor Allen's English Grammar Viewed from All 
Sides y Educatioiij March, 1887; and Professor Emerson's 
paper. The Teaching of Ejiglish Grajnniar, School Reviezv, 
March, 1897. See also Professor Hinsdale's Teaching the Laii- 
gu age- Arts (Appleton & Co.) ; Professor Laurie's lectures 
on Language and Lijiguistic Method in the School (Simpkin & 
Marshall) ; and the reports of the National Committees of Ten 
and Fifteen (American Book Co.). William Cobbett's Gram- 
mar of the E7iglish La7iguagey "in a series of letters, intended 
for the use of schools and of young persons in general, but more 
especially for the use of soldiers, sailors, apprentices, and plough- 
boys," was first published in 1820, and is now antiquated in very 
many particulars. It has, however, a peculiar interest in that it 
was written in the United States, and its sturdy common-sense 



Suggestions for Teachers 249 

and familiar but vigorous style have kept it from the usual fate 
of similar treatises, and still render it interesting and suggestive. 
The best edition is that published by Appleton & Co. 

With reference to the value of Grammar as the crystallization 
of thought (see page 5, note i), it is appropriate to quote an 
admirable passage from the section on the correlation of studies 
in the Report of the Coinniittee of Fifteen (pages 48-9) : 

" Grammar is the science of language, and as the first of the 
seven liberal arts it has long held sway in school as the discipli- 
nary study par excetlence. A survey of its educational value, 
subjective and objective, usually produces the conviction that it 
is to retain the first place in the future. Its chief objective ad- 
vantage is that it shows the structure of language, and the logical 
forms of subject, predicate, and modifier, thus revealing the 
essential nature of thought itself, the most important of all 
objects, because it is self-object. On the subjective or psycho- 
logical side, grammar demonstrates its title to the first place by 
its use as a discipline in subtle analysis, in logical division and 
classification, in the art of questioning, and in the mental accom- 
plishment of making exact definitions. Nor is this an empty, 
formal discipline, for its subject matter, language, is the product 
of the reason of a people, not as individuals, but as a social 
whole, and the vocabulary holds in its store of words the general- 
ized experience of that people, including sensuous observation 
and reflection, feeling and emotion, instinct and volition.^' 

With regard to the distinction between Grammar, rhetoric, 
and logic, referred to on page 7, it is recommended that the 
teacher keep clearly before the pupils' minds the fact that Gram- 
mar concerns itself only wdth the word-structure of what we say 
or write. If that structure is in accordance with English usage, 
Grammar can only analyze it into its parts, and show their 
mutual relations. Rhetoric assumes that the word-structure is 
grammatical, or in accordance with English usage, and concerns 
itself only with the effectiveness and beauty of the structure and 
the accuracy with which it represents a given idea. Grammar 
does not take into account the meaning of w^ords, but merely 
their structural relation to each other. Rhetoric takes into 
account the meaning of words, and inquires whether they are 



250 English Grammar 

properly, clearly, and effectively used under given circumstances. 
Logic does not take into account the structural relations of words, 
nor their effectiveness. It has to do solely with the criticism of 
the judgments expressed by words, distinguishing sound argu- 
ments or sound processes of thought from unsound arguments or 
unsound and irrational processes of thought. 

The crtix of a text-book on English Grammar is the treat- 
ment of verb-phrases. On this point the writer h6pes that his 
work is, in some respects, in advance of his predecessors, though 
he is far from maintaining that he has presented the subject in 
the simplest possible way. According to this method the pupil 
learns first w^hat verb-phrases may be reasonably considered as 
falling into the conjugation of the verb. Of the remainder he 
next learns which are indicative in force. Those that are left may 
safely be considered as subjunctive in force, and should, as a rule, 
not be analyzed, in form or force, with any attempt at thorough- 
ness. Only a mature person, with the resources of a wide read- 
ing at his command, can classify subjunctive verb-phrases with - 
anything like success. 

The appendix on phonology is inserted in the hope that some 
schools may undertake the general survey of the subject recom- 
mended by the Committee of Ten. Further information may be 
best obtained from Soames's Iiitrodtiction to Phonetics (a useful 
general work, The Macmillan Co.) ; Swxet's Primer of Spoken 
English (a suggestive smaller work, Clarendon Press) ; Sweet's 
Primer of Phoitetics (Clarendon Press) ; Sweet's History of 
English Sonnds (Clarendon Press) ; and Ellis's Early English 
Pronunciation. The last two are exhaustive works on historical 
English phonetics. The international periodical for phonetics is 
Phonetische Studien. It contains many articles and reviews 
written in English and on English phonetics. 

Very little has been written on American pronunciation. 
Everything of value is mentioned in the bibliographical lists of 
Dialect Notes, the publication of the American Dialect Society, 
or among the papers published in Dialect Notes itself. Miss 
Soames's book contains a somewhat more extended bibliography 
(also for French and German), and in Sievers' Grundz'uge der 
Pho7ietik is a fairly exhaustive bibliography of the whole subject. 



INDEX 



[The Numbers refer to Pages] 



I. SUBJECTS TREATED 



Adjectives, 20 ; as nouns, 21, 76 ; 
possessive case equivalent to, 21, 
106 ; predicate, 98, 178 ; attribu- 
tive, 98, 197; appositive, 98, 180; 
kinds of, 99 ; numeral, 99 ; demon- 
strative, 100; interrogative, 100; 
relative, 100; indefinite, loi ; pro- 
nominal, loi ; comparison of, 102; 
not compared, 104; how parsed, 
107; participle an adjective, 139; 
participial in form, 142, 145 ; prepo- 
sitional adjectives, 158 ; inflection, 
177 ; syntax, 177 ; double compara- 
tive and superlative, 178 ; attribu- 
tive adjectives sometimes follow 
the nouns they modify, 197. 

Adjective-clauses, 106, 155, 210. 

Adjective-phrases, 106, 210; prepo- 
sitional, 160, 210. 

Adverbs, 27 ; as nouns, 76 ; participle 
with adverbial force, 143 ; uses, 
147 ; kinds of, 148 ; demonstrative, 
150; interrogative, 148, 150; rela- 
tive, 150 ; how to parse, 152 ; form 
of, 153; comparison, 154; close 
relation between preposition and 
adverb, 159 ; between conjunction 
and adverb, 168; with seems, 
looks, etc., 179 ; syntax, 193. 

Adverb-clauses, 155, 210. 

Adverb-phrases, 155, 157 ; preposi- 
tional, 161. 



j Adverbial relation, cases equivalent 
to, 73 and note i. 

Analysis, 204; of simple sentences, 
211 ; of other sentences, 213. 

Apposition, nouns in, 6j, 71, note i, 
74; nouns in apposition have an 
adjective force, 106. See also 
Adjectives and Participles, Ap- 
positive Uses of. 

Articles, 105. 

Auxiliary verbs, 128-138, 189-191. 

Case, the four cases, 63. See Nomi- 
native, Possessive, Dative, and 
Objective. 

Clauses, 30, 207 ; subordinate, 132, 
note 2, 135, 136, 164, 187. 

Composition, 36, 229. 

Conditional sentences, 199. 

Conjunctions, 28 ; relative adverbs or 
conjunctions, 148, note 3, 150 ; uses 
of, 163 ; compared with preposi- 
tion, 163 ; coordinate, 163 ; cor- 
relative, 164; conjunction-phrases, 

164, 165, 208 ; subordinate, 164, 

165, 167 ; how to parse, 165 ; rela- 
tion to adverb and preposition, 
168 ; position of correlative con- 
junctions, 194. 

Conjugation. See Verb and Inflection. 
Copula. See Verb of Incomplete 
Predication. 



251 



252 



English Grammar 



Dative case, used where we now 
generally employ the nominative 
absolute, 68, 145, note i, denoting 
indirect object, 70; in apposition, 
71, note I ; of personal pronouns, 
84; of interrogative pronouns, 86; 
of relative pronouns, 89; of indefi- 
nite pronouns, 92; of the infini- 
tive, in Old Enghsh, 139; used, 
historically, after like, near, etc., 
158 ; syntax, 175 ; *' ethical," 175. 

Demonstrative. See Pronoun, De- 
monstrative and Adjective, Demon- 
strative. 

Derivation, 35, 229. 

Discourse, direct and indirect, 186, 
note I, 188. 

English language, relations to other 
languages, 8-10; Old English, 
10; Middle English, 12; Modern 
English, 14 ; literary English, 15 ; 
colloquial English, 15 ; vulgar Eng- 
Hsh, 15. 

Gender, ways of denoting, 47; by 
inflection, 47 ; by composition, 
49 ; by use of separate words, 50. 

Grammar, i; divisions of, 2; pur- 
pose of, 5, and Appendix, V; 
historical, 6; part of analysis in, 
204. 

Infinitive, 116 ; used in verb-phrases, 
129-131 ; various uses, 139-142 ; 
complementary, 140 ; how to parse, 
142; participial infinitive distin- 
guished from participle in certain 
phrases, 144, note i ; tense, 117, 
192; syntax, 192; split infinitive, 
192. 

Inflection, 4, 33, 229; loss of inflec- 
tion, 34, 64; to denote gender, 
47 ; to denote number, 53 ; of 
possessive case, 64; of personal 
pronoun, 79 ; of interrogative pro- 
noun, 86 ; of relative pronoun, 89, 
92; of demonstrative pronoun, 94; 
of demonstrative adjective, 100; of 



adjective, 102 ; of verbs, see 

Verbs. 
Ing, classification of words in, 145. 
Interjections, 29, 170. 

Negative, double, 193. 

Nominative case, subject of verb, 
67 ; case of address, 67 ; predi- 
cate, 67, 109, 139, I7p; in apposi- 
tion, 67; absolute, 68; confusion 
of nominative and objective cases 
in pronouns, 79, 173 ; syntax, 

173. 

Nouns', 19; as adjectives, 21, 106; 
kinds of, 38 ; proper and common, 
38 and 43, note i ; collective, 40, 
53, 184; concrete and abstract, 
40; gender, 45; number, 53 (see 
Plural) ; compound-nouns, 60^ 
65 ; case, 63 (see Nominative, 

, Possessive, Dative, and Objec- 
tive) ; how to parse, 74 ; other 
parts of speech as nouns, 76 ; 
nouns in apposition equivalent to 
adjectives, 106 ; infinitive a noun, 
116, 139; nouns in -ing, 145, note 
3 ; syntax, 192. 

Noun-clauses, 155, 167, 208 ; syntax, 
208. 

Noun-phrases, 76, 208 ; prepositional, 
158. See also Infinitive. 

Object, direct, 26, 175 ; indirect, 70, 
"^IS ; cognate, 73 ; infinitive as ob- 
ject, 140 ; object of infinitive, 141 ; 
retained objects, 176; two objects, 
176; in analysis, 211. 

Objective case, object of verb, 72 ; in 
apposition, 72; objective comple- 
ment, 72, 176; with preposition, 72 
and note i ; cognate object, 'jo, ; 
adverbial objective, 73, 106, 141, 
152, 155 ; confusion of nominative 
and objective case in pronouns, 79, 
173 ; of personal pronoun, 84 ; of 
interrogative pronoun, 86 ; of rela- 
tive pronoun, 89, 92; subject of 
infinitive, 141 ; syntax, 176. 

Order of words, 196. 



Index 



253 



Orthoepy, 2. 
Orthography, 2. 

Parsing, how to parse nouns, 74 ; per- 
sonal pronouns, 85; interrogative 
pronouns, 88 ; relative pronouns, 
91 ; adjectives, 107 : infinitives, 
142 ; participles, 145 ; preposi- 
tions, 159 ; conjunctions, 165. 

Participles, 117 ; in verb-phrases, 
129, 139 ; words participial only in 
form, 142; attributive, 143; predi- 
cate, 143; appositive, 144, 192; 
absolute, 144; in en, 143, note i, 
and Appendix, IV ; distinguished 
from participial infinitive in cer- 
tain phrases, 144, note i ; syntax, 
192. 

Parts of speech, 3, 18, 29, 207, 208. 

Personification, 51, 89, 175. 

Phonology, 2, note, and Appendix, I. 

Phrases, 30, 207. 

Plural of nouns, formed in different 
ways, 54-62. 

Possessive case, force of, 21,69; in- 
flection, 64 ; double possessive with 
of^ 69, 70, note 3, and 84 ; in appo- 
sition, 73, note 3; of it, 81; of 
personal pronouns, 83 ; of inter- 
rogative pronouns, 86 ; of relative 
pronouns, 89, 92; of indefinite 
pronouns, 96 ; of phrases, 96 ; wdth 
the infinitive, 141 ; prepositional 
phrase equivalent to possessive, 
160; syntax, 174. 

Predicate, 24, 211. 

Prefixes, Appendix, II. See also 
Derivation. 

Prepositions, 28 ; infinitive after, 140 ; 
in ing, 145 ; uses of, 157 ; pecuhar 
in form or use, 158 ; how to parse, 
159 ; close relation between prepo- 
sition and adverb, 159 ; various 
uses, 160; prepositional adjective- 
phrases, 160; prepositional ad- 
verb-phrases, 161 ; compared with 
conjunction, 163 ; relation to con- 
junction, 168. 

Preposition-phrases, 158, 159, 208. 



Pronouns, 23 ; gender of, 46 ; kinds 
of, 78 ; personal, 78-85 ; how to 
parse personal pronouns, 85 ; in- 
terrogative, 86; relative, 88; how 
to parse interrogative pronouns, 
88 ; how to parse relative pro- 
nouns, 91 ; as and but as rela- 
tive pronouns, 93 ; distinction 
between relative pronouns in in- 
direct questions and interrogative, 
93; demonstrative, 94; omission 
of relative, 94, note 2, and 180; 
adjective, 95 ; syntax, 173-176, 
180. 

Questions, indirect, 93, 209; im- 
plied, loi ; shall and will in, 
132. 

Sentences, classified as to thought, 
204; as to form, 205; analysis of, 
211-215. 

Subject, of a verb, 24, 183 ; gram- 
matical or logical, 81, 140, 152, 209 ; 
infinitive as subject of a verb, 139 ; 
subject of infinitive, 141 ; order of 
subject and verb, 197 ; in analysis, 
211. 

Subjunctive. See Verb. 

Suffixes, Appendix, II. See also 
Derivation. 

Syntax, 4, 172-198. 

Verbs, 24; subject of, 24; object of, 
25 ; verbs of incomplete predication, 
66, 109, 139, 178-180; kinds of, 
108; transitive, 108; intransitive, 
108 ; impersonal, no ; conjuga- 
tion, no, 118; conjugation of be, 
118; oi have, 1.2.0 \ of love, 122] of 
Jind, 123; of be in subjunctive, 
187 ; of other verbs in subjunctive, 
189; voices, no; formation of the 
passive, 129 ; passive of verbs tak- 
ing two objects or a dative, 176 ; 
moods. III; indicative, in; sub- 
junctive, 112, 132, note I, 134-138, 
186-191 ; imperative, 113, 131 ; 
tenses, 114, 186; tenses of verbals, 



254 



English Grammar 



139, 192 ; person and number, 115, 
183-185 ; consonant and vowel,- 
121 ; principal parts, 124, and Ap- 
pendix.IV; defective, 127 ; auxiliary 
verbs (see Auxiliary Verbs) ; verbs 
taking two objects ("factitive"), 



176, 178 ; syntax, 183 ; order of 

subject and verb, 197. 
Verbals, 138. 
Verb-phrases, 129-138, 188-191, 208, 

note I. 
Vocative case. See Nominative. 



2. SOME WORDS SPECIALLY COMMENTjED ON 



A, preposition, 106, 143, note 2. 

Alone (only), 194. 

As, relative, 93; relative or demon- 
strative adverb, 151 ; conjunction, 
167; as if, as though, 168; sum- 
mary, 195. 

Be, indicative, 120. 

But, relative pronoun, 93 ; preposi- 
tion, 158, 166, 173 ; conjunction, 
166 ; summary, 195, 

Can, 127, 130, 134. 

Could, 127, 128, 137, 138, 191. 

'Em, 81. 

For to, 139. 

Had better, 202. 
Hight, 127. 

His (its), 81, 82, note i. 
His'n, 83, note 6. 
How d'ye do, 80. 

Is being built, 143, note 2. 
It, uses of, 81. 
It is me, 173. 

Like, 158, 168. 

May, 127, 130, 133, 191. 
Methinks, meseems, 84. 



Might, 127, 130, 137, 191. 
Must, 127, 128, 130. 

Near, 158. 

Only, 193. 
Ought, 127, 130. 

Quoth, 127. 

Same, 86, note 3. 
Shall, 127, 128, 130-133. 
Should, 127, 128, 134-136, 191. 
So, 148, note I, 150. 

Than, relative adverb, 151. 
Than whom, 151, note i, 173. 
That, summary of uses, 195. 
That, restrictive, 90, and note i. 
The, demonstrative, 106, 151. 
These kind, 177. 
This many summers, 178. 
T'other, 106. 

What, summary of uses, 195. 
Who (whom), 87, 88, note 2, 183. 
Whose (of which), 89. 
(And) which, 181. 
Will, 127, 128, 130-133. 
Would, 127, 128, 136, 191. 

Yclept, 127. 
You (ye), 79. 



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